
Class T_£i_Laa51 



Book_ 






A PRACTICAL GUIDE 



MEAT INSPECTION 



A PRACTICAL GUIDE 



TO 



MEAT INSPECTION 

•SA^-vo.:- (WALIvEY) 



RE-WRITTEN AND ENLARGED 
BY 

STEWART STOCKMAN, M.R.C.V.S." 

PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY 

LECTURER ON HYGIENE AND MEAT INSPECTION 

DICK VETERINARY COLLEGE, EDINBURGH 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 




New York 
WILLIAM K. JENKINS 

VETERINARY PUBLISHER AND BOOKSELLER 
851 AND 853 Sixth Avenue 

1902 






'off 



A- 



/^ 



i 



1^ 



PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION 



In preparing the Fourth Edition of this book, the original in- 
tention of the Editor was to follow on the lines usually adopted 
in such an undertaking. 

After various attempts, however, he saw that it would be 
impossible to carry this out with any success, and he decided 
to re-write and enlarge the whole book. 

Those who were acquainted with the former editions of 
Walley's " Meat Inspection," will hardly recognise the Eouilh 
Edition as a direct lineal descendant. Nevertheless the Editor 
wishes to acknowledge that the new edition is indebted to 
the old for much useful information, and that he himself must 
ever remember with gratitude the valuable personal instruction 
on the subject of Meat Inspection which he received from the 
late Professor Walley. 

In order to perform the higher duties of a Meat Inspector — 
the Editor is of opinion that veterinary surgeons. should not 
condescend to what might be called the policeman's part 
— a considerable knowledge of Comparative Pathology, in- 
cluding those branches of the subject termed Bacteriology and 
Parasitology, is necessary. It must be understood, however, 
that in no sense does the Editor claim for the Fourth Edition 
that it is a text-book of Pathology, Bacteriology, or Parasit- 
ology. His object has been to introduce just so much of each 
as is necessary to enable the veterinary student to understand 
the nature of the morbid changes with which he is likely to 
meet in the abattoirs. To keeiD the book within reasonable 



vi PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION 

limits, it has been assumed that the reader has already passed 
through a course of Comparative Pathology and Comparative 
Anatomy, for only those who have taken out a full course of 
veterinary instruction are fitted to undertake the higher 
branches of Meat Inspection. 

The veterinary student must not assume, however, that 
with the termination of his college course he has acquired all 
the knowledge necessary for the inspection of meat. There 
is certainly a great deal more that can only be learned at the 
abattoir and in the laboratory, but he is much further on 
towards the acquirement of this knowledge than those who 
have not had the benefit of a veterinary education. 

For the section entitled " Statutory Provisions," etc., 
the book is indebted to D. Winter Eobb, Esq., S.S.C, Edin- 
burgh; and the Editor wishes further to acknowledge the 
great assistance which Mr. Eobb has given him in the reading 
of proof-slips and sheets. The chapter on "Eood Poisoning" 
has been kindly contributed by Ralph Stockman, Esq., M.D., 
F.R.C.P.E., Eegius Professor of Materia Medica, University of 
Glasgow. For the final reading of the sheets, the book is 
indebted to J. MTadyean, Esq., M.B., CM., B.Sc, Principal, 
E.O.V.S., London, who very kindly offered to superintend 
this part of the work on the Editor's departure for South 
Africa. To Messrs. Eiddock and Thomson, Veterinary In- 
spectors to the City of Edinburgh, the Editor owes his best 
thanks for the many specimens with which they have supplied 
him. The illustrations marked " Neumann " are from Dr. 
Fleming's translation of Neumann's Parasites of the Domestic- 
ated Animals, and they are made from blocks kindly supplied 
by the publishers, Messrs. Balliere, Tindall, & Cox, London. 

A large number have also been copied from Leuckart's 
Parasites of Man, through the kindness of the publisher, 
Mr. Young J. Pentland, Edinburgh. The illustrations marked 
M'Fadyean have been copied, with kind permission, from 
the Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics. The 
Veterinarian has been good enough to lend Fig. 13 (Tubercle 



PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION vii 

of pig's muscle, p. 102), which was originally made from a 
photograph by the Editor. Professor Muir of Glasgow has 
kindly supplied the negative for the illustration of the 
pseudo-tuberculosis bacillus. Mr. Frazer, Optician, Edinburgh, 
has been kind enough to lend the woodcuts of apparatus. 
The remainder of the illustrations, unless specially marked, 
are from photographs of specimens in the possession of the 
Editer, taken either by himself or by Mr. J. Paterson, of the 
R.C.P. Laboratory, Edinburgh. 

On the subject of Meat Inspection there is often room for 
difference of opinion, and the procedure in this or that abattoir 
is frequently based on use or wont. The Editor would like to 
say that his aim has not been to lay down the law, but rather 
to show the lines upon which a rational opinion may be formed. 

In conclusion, the Editor sincerely hopes that he has not 
omitted to thank any one who has given him assistance. 

STEWART STOCKMAN 
March 1900. 

Note. — Owing to my absence abroad, it was found necessary to delay the 
publishing for several months. — S. S. 

May 1901. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 



The Author of this little work desires to express his thanks 
to Professor M'Fadyean for the lucid description given by him 
of the micro-organisms of Anthrax, Black Quarter, Tuber- 
culosis, and Actinomycosis ; to Dr. Klein for the kind permission, 
readihr granted by him, to use his Plates on the micro-organism 
of Anthrax, Black Quarter, and Tuberculosis respectively; 
to Mr. T. P. Young, M.E.O.V.S., for his assistance in the general 
preparation of the work, and more particularly in the arrange- 
ment of the index. The Author also wishes to solicit the indulg- 
ence of his readers for any imperfections and irregularities 
that may exist in the text, as, owing to circumstances over 
which he had no control, many interruptions in the j^repar- 
ation of the work had occurred, and these have delayed its 
publication and interfered with the order of sequence of the 
different articles. Thus, since the articles on Tetanus, Pleuro- 
pneumonia, and Diphtheria were penned, micro-organisms 
have been discovered as the causal entity in each disease by 
dift'erent pathologists ; and on re-perusal of the finished 
proofs several discrepancies in the matter of sequence have 
come under the Author's notice. These shortcomings will 
not, he hopes, detract from the general value of his work, 
nor make it the less acceptable to those interested in the 
matter of Meat Inspection. 

February 1890. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Pkeface to the Foueth Edition ..... v-vii 

Preface to the First Editiok ...... viii 

Ll.ST OF IlLUSTTvATIOXS ....... xi 

INTEODUCTION 

historical 

Development of Meat Inspection — Statutory Provisions in regard to the 

Duties of Meat Inspectors ...... 1-18 

METHOD OF INSPECTION 

Method — Difference in Carcases, Flesh, and Organs referable to Species, 
Sex, and Age — Methods of preparing Tissues for Mici'oscopical 
Examination ........ 19-43 

GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 

In filtrations — Degenerations — Necrosis — Neoplasms — Fevered Flesh — 
Wounds —Rupture of (Esophagus — Suffocation — Fatigue — Alteration 
in the Flesh produced by Drugs — The Influence of the Food . . 44-61 

POST-MORTEM CHANGES IN FLESH 
Puti-efaction — Phosphorescent Meat — Mouldy Flesh . . . 62-66 

INFLAMMATORY DISEASES 

Pneumonia — Pleurisy — Peritonitis — Pericarditis — Endocarditis — Neph- 
ritis — Osteitis — Inspection in the case of Inflammatory Diseases . 67-72 



CONTENTS 



DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

PAGE 

Anjemia — Leucocytlifemia — Red Water — Urticaria . . . 73-78 

BACTERIAL DISEASES 

Tuberculosis — Bacterial Pseudo-tuberculosis — Actinomycosis — Glanders — 
Diseases characterised by Suppuration — Navel-Ill— Joint-Ill — Botryo- 
my cosis — Mammitis — Septic Metritis — Diphtheria — Aspergillosis — 
Bacterial Necrosis — Swine Fever — Swine Erysipelas — Contagious 
Pneumonia of Swine — Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle — Foot 
and Mouth Disease — Variola — Cattle Plague — Malignant Catarrh of 
the Ox — Malignant Catarrh of the Sheep — Anthrax — Malignant 
(Edema — Black Quarter — Red Braxy — Tetanus — Rabies — Fowl 
Cholera — Diarrhoea in Young Animals — Dermatomycosis . 79-185 

DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 

Texas Fever — Sarcosporidse — Coccidiosis— Cestodes — Measles — Cysticercus 
Tenuicollis — Cysticercus Pisiformis — Echinococcus Veterinorum — 
Coenurus Cerebralis — Coenurus Serialis — Tsenise — Trematodes — Disto- 
matosis — Bilharzia Bovis — Amphistoma Conicum — Nematodes — 
Trichinosis — Ascarides — Echinorhynchus Gigas — (Esophagostoma 
Columbianum — Eustrongylus Gigas — Strongyli of Hoose — Insects — 
Mange — Bots or Warbles — Maggots — Phthiriasis or Lousiness — 
Ixodidse — Pentastoma Denticulatum .... 186-269 

UNCLASSED DISEASES 
Milk Fever — Louping 111- — Rickets — Osteo-porosis . . . 274-281 

FOOD POISONING IN MAN . . 274-281 

Bibliography ........ 283 

Index ......... 291 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATES 

PLATE 

I. Hind Quaetee of Bullock .... 
II. Hind Quakter of Heifee .... 

III. Hind Quaetee of Cow ..... 

IV. TUEEEOLE OF PlEUEA ..... 

,, ,, Position of infeeior Boedee of Lung of Cow 

,, ,, Lymphatic Gland (Beonchial) of Cow 

V. Exteenal Sueface of a Lobe of the Livee of a Hen 
(Tubeecle) ...... 

VI. Coils of Intestines of a Hen (Tubeecle) 
VII. Photoueaph of Abdominal and Thoeacic Sueface of the 

Carcase of a Cow (Tubercle) . 
VIII. Actinomycosis Organism ..... 

,, Head of Hen, with Mouth open (Diphtheria) 
IX. Portion of Tongue of Ox (Actinomycosis) 
X. Septum Nasi Glandees . . 

XL Geoup of Glandees Ulcers on Inner Surface of Anterior 

AND Upper Part of Nostril of Horse 
XII. External Surface of Ear of Pig (Swine Fever) 
,, Ileo-c^cal Valve of Young Pig (Normal) 

XIII. Section of Lymphatic Gland (Swine Fever) . 
,, Ecchymosis on the Endocardium of Pig (Swine Fever) 
,, Section through Muscle of Pig (Swine Fever) 

XIV. PoETioN OF Third Stomach of Cow 
,, Section of Fourth Stomach of Cow . 



FACING 
PAGE 

23 

24 
26 
90 
90 
90 

97 
98 

94 
111 
138 
113 
118 

117 
147 
147 
149 
149 
149 
164 
164 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIGURES 

Actinomycosis, superior maxilla of ox 

Adenoma, section of (Reichert, obj. 3) 

AmpMstoma conicum in rumen of ox 

Anthrax bacilli from blood (Leitz, oil immersion. jV) 

Bacillus onallei in pus (oil immersion, -^) 

Bacterial necrosis, section of liver showing lesions of 

Balhiania gigantea, falciform corpuscles of 

, , , , oesophagus of sheep showing , 

Black Quarter, bacillus of, from muscle (Zeiss oil imm. ^V) 
Carcinoma, section of (Reichert, obj. 3) . 
Cavernous spaces in liver of ox (Leitz, obj. 3) 
Cirrhosis of the liver, showing new tissue and bile capillaries 

(Reichert, obj. 3) . 
Coccidia from the liver 

, , in liver and lesions (micro. ) 
,, in lamb's intestines and lesions (micro.) 
, , nodules in liver of rabbit 
Cceimmis cerebralis, brain of lamb with passages of. Nat. size 

,, ,, heads of 

Cysticercus lovis, evaginated head of 
, , in heart of ox . 
,, in hind quarter of ox 
, , in muscle 
celluloses from pig after digestion 
tenuicolUs 

pisiformis, body and evaginated head of 
,, head of 

Demodex of pig. x 250 . 
Distoma, larval, in muscle of pig . 
Distomum hsematobium, male and female 

,, hepaticLim. Nat. size . 
JEchinococcus multilocularis. Nat. size . 
,, racomostcs. Nat. size 

,, veterinorum, diagram showing development of 

,, ,, liver of pig affected with 

,, ,, scolices of (Reichert, obj. 7) 

EcMnorliynchiCs gigas, head of. x 10 . 

,, ,, (male) attached to intestine 

Foot and mouth disease, tongue and pad of ox showing lesions of 

,, ,, foot of ox affected with 

Forceps ..... 
Glanders, microscopical section of nodule 
Hsematopinus eurysternus (female) of ox. x 20 
,, tenuirostris {lcm.ale) of ox. x 20 



FIG. 

15 

7 
60 
24 
16 
18 
31 
33 
26 

6 
57 

56 
34 
36 
37 
35 
54 
63 
38 
42 
43 
41 
39 
44 
47 
46 
71 
58 
59 
55 
50 
49 
48 
52 
51 
63 
64 
22 
23 
3 

17 
73 
74 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Linguatula tcenioides, pupa of . 

Lipoma, section of, from intestines 

Malignant ojdema, bacillus of. x 1000 . " 

Meischer's tubes and kidney-shaped bodies 

Mclophagus ovinus ..... 

Microtome, Cathcavt freezing .... 

GEsophagostoma Golumbiannvi, lesions caused by . 
Pentastomum denticulatwn .... 

, , , , in lung of rabbit 

Pleuro -pneumonia, contagious, section of lung showing lesions of 
Pseudo-tuberculosis, bacillus of. x 1000 

,, (parasitic) in lung of sheep, disseminated 

lesion .... 

,, (parasitic) nodule (Reichert, obj. 3) . 

Rainey's tubes, x 40 . 
Reagent bottles ...... 

Sarcojptcs scabiei ...... 

Sarcoptic mange on head of sheep 

Staining dish ...... 

Strongyl'us rufcscens, fibroid pneumonia caused by 

,, ,, eggs and embryos in lung of sheep . 

Swine fever, bacillus of (Zeiss, oil immersion, ^V) 

,, ,, ulcers on large intestine 
Tsenia marginata, booklets of ' . 
,, solium, ,, J) ■ 

Tetanus, bacillus of (Reichert, oil immersion, ^V) 
Texas fever, parasites of, in red blood cells 
Tinea tonsurans, hair of horse, showing the trycophyton para 

site ....... 

Trichina spiralis, embryo, intermediate form, and sexual form 

Trichinosed pork, x 45 . 

Tricliodcdcs scalaris (female) of ox. x 20 

Tubercle, bacillus of. x 1000 .... 

,, chronic of udder, section (Reichert, obj. 3) 

,, miliary in lung (nat. size) 

, , of muscle, hind quarter of pig . 

,, of vertebra . . . 

Tuberculous nodule in lung of cow (Reichert, obj. 3) 



FIG. 


PAGE 


. 77 


267 


5 


50 


. 25 


169 


. 30 


189 


. 76 


265 


1 


42 


. 65 


248 


. 78 


268 


. 79 


268 


. 21 


154 


14 
1 


109 


. 66 


251 


. 67 


252 


. 32 


190 


2 


42 


. 70 


257 


. 72 


259 


4 


42 


. 69 


254 


. 68 


253 


. 19 


146 


. 20 


147 


. 45 


212 


. 40 


200 


. 27 


176 


. 29 


187 


. 28 


183 


. 61 


237 


. 62 


240 


. 75 


265 


8 


85 


. 11 


100 


. 10 


94 


. 13 


102 


12 


101 


9 


88 



MEAT INSPECTION 



INTRODUCTION 

HISTOEICAL 

The Development of Meat Inspection ^ 

In approaching this subject, much of which is buried in rehgious 
antiquity, I do not mean to pose as a bibhcal scholar. One 
may, hoAvever, be allowed to take at least an amateur's interest 
in the customs of early civilisation in the East, whence have 
emanated many of the rules devised for the health of our souls, 
and some of those elaborated for that of our bodies. Moses 
undoubtedly learned much concerning hygiene from the 
Egyptians during the Captivity ; indeed, he had great oppor- 
tunity, for we are told that at his instance the land was visited 
by ten plagues in the space of about twenty-five days. Many 
medical writers, however, have credited Moses with a know- 
ledge of pathology and hygiene far in advance of his time ; 
but I am bound to confess that the evidence brought forward in 
favour of Moses' highly-scientific attainments is often shadowy, 
to say the least of it. Moreover, in the writings of some of 

^ Presidential Address delivered by the Editor to the Scottish Microscopical 
Society, Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh, 1899. 



2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

tlie most distinguished scholars, one finds that the supposed 
medical aspect of the laws relating to animals— the subject 
that concerns us at present— is hardly discussed. It is often 
asserted in medical books that the pig was excluded from con- 
sumption in the Levitical laws, because it was known to Moses 
that swine-flesh was often measled (as we now call it), and 
might infect human beings with tapeworm. It is unlikely 
that Moses was the originator of the laws referred to ; there 
were lawgivers and traditions before his day, and it is in the 
evolution of these traditional ideas that the explanation of 
the laws relating to the flesh of animals seems to lie. 

The portion of Leviticus which deals with the subject 
was compiled by the writer of the Law of Holiness somewhere 
about eight hundred years or more after the death of Moses ; 
but the writer was not the originator ; he did little more than 
record the traditional laws, which before his time were per- 
petuated and probably modified by the practices of generations. 
Once the laws w^ere written, of course, their development 
would be checked. It might be argued that the successors of 
Moses applied the laws relating to animals for medical reasons ; 
but nobody would credit such a suggestion, because all the 
evidence points to them having a religious significance : they 
are, in fact, part of the ritual. 

The solution of the question hangs on the origin of the 
idea of uncleanness as applied to animals. Robertson Smith, in 
his " Burnett Lectures " (1888-89), traces in a most interesting 
way the evolution of ideas which men held regarding their 
relation to animals. I wish here to state that I am indebted 
to his works for a great deal of information. 

In the earlier days, when ritual was of the most primitive 
kind, there was a time when an amimal's life was held sacred on 
account of the kinship which was supposed to exist between 
men and gods and beasts. Animals were only slaughtered 
for a sacrificial meal, in which the god was supposed to partake 
along with his worshippers. This seemed to justify the slaughter. 
As the desire for animal food increased, however^ the sacrificial 



INTRODUCTION 3 

character of the slaughter was relaxed, except with regard 
to certain species of animals which were held peculiarly sacred. 
They were deemed so because of their supposed kinship with 
families of men, and their relationship to the god. 

At the present day one finds it hard to understand how 
any family of human beings could foster the idea of their 
relationship to the pig, or consider the species divine. 
(Although nobody denies evolution, great difference of opinion 
comes in when we attempt to determine from what we are 
evolved.) Once the latter relationship was established in men's 
minds, however, the former would become much easier to 
accejit. There is plenty of evidence to show that such beliefs 
were held and acted upon in the days of early paganism, and 
that the traditional ceremonies survived long after the reason 
for them had been discredited. Even now, savage totem tribes 
exist in Africa, and it is hinted by some authorities that their 
ideas may have originally come from the same source as those 
of the Semitic races. It is to be observed that the animal 
held sacred was not always of the same species. In Egypt it 
was the dog, especially at Cyanopolis (Anubis was worshipped 
as the representative of the dog). Of . fish, the eel was held 
sacred to the Nile by the Egyptians (Herodotus, ii. 72) ; it was 
unclean to the Jews. The Hindoos regard the cow as sacred ; 
the Shin caste of Dards abhor it. The Kafhr used the ox, as 
we do a sheep-dog, to herd and protect flocks. 

Besides the supposed relation of animals to gods, there 
was another reason why certain of them were to be avoided, 
viz. that they were associated with the presence of dreaded 
spirits. In the Book of the Bead (Birch's translation) we find 
that the Egyptians considered the pig unclean because the 
demon Set appeared in that form (Hastings' Bictionary of 
the Bible, article " Food "). Herodotus (ii. 47) hints at a reason, 
but says it would be unbecoming to mention it. Herodotus 
frequently makes this excuse for not referring to religious 
matters. We see, then, that among the ancients restrictions 
were put on certain animals for two reasons— first, on account 



4 MEAT INSPECTION 

of holiness, i.e.. the relationship to gods ; and, second, because 
of ill-disposed spirits dwelling within them, i.e. uncleanness. 
The two, however, own a common root idea, and, as Robertson 
Smith points out, the law of clean and unclean in Levitical 
legislation almost meets that of holiness, since uncleanness 
was considered hateful to God. An unclean person could not 
approach the sanctuary. 

In time of famine and on special occasions, the totem was 
slaughtered and eaten by its human relations, but with many 
lamentations and apologies, which must have done much to 
soften the blow. Similarly, sacred and unclean animals were 
eaten when food was scarce ; and on specially solemn occasions 
they were employed for mystic sacrifices to certain gods whose 
names were associated with the species of animal. In the latter 
cases the whole community took a hand, and they shared the 
responsibility of the animal's death, as we to-day share the 
responsibility of a capital sentence with the judge through 
our representatives on the jury. When the Syrians besieged 
Samaria, the beleaguered inhabitants were so short of food 
that an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver 
(2 Kings vi.); but the ass neither parteth the hoof nor cheweth 
the cud. That even human flesh was eaten under the same 
circumstances, we learn from 2 Kings vi. 29, and Lamenta- 
tions iv. 10. Herodotus tells us (ii. 47) that the Egyptians 
periodically sacrificed pigs to Isis (the goddess of the moon) 
and to Bacchus. Pigs also were sacrificed to Demeter, the 
Greek representative of Isis, and to Ceres, the Roman one, to 
whom the first temple was vowed by Postumius Albinus, 
496 B.C. It was a moot point with the Greeks whether the 
Jews abhorred or worshipped pigs {i.e. whether they were 
unclean or holy). In Crete, pigs were sacred, and not ordinarily 
eaten ; so also was it in Syria. In the Levitical sin-offering 
the fat was burned at the altar, and the remainder of the flesh 
was eaten by the priests or burned outside the town. Reason- 
ing from what took place among other peoples, Robertson 
Smith concluded that this was done in order that there might 



INTR OD UCTION 5 

be no chance of laymen being rendered unclean by coming in 
contact with anything so holy, for holiness and uncleanness 
were looked upon as contagious, i.e. were capable of spreading 
from things to men and from men to others. The more ancient 
beliefs were that a man who ate unclean beasts, or the totem, 
would be visited by boils, ulcers, and swellings. Herodotus, 
however, tells us that the Egyptians considered all diseases to 
be c^sed by demons entering the j)atient ; and it is easy to 
understand how men would fear and shun unclean animals 
in which demons were supposed to be resident. From this it 
may well be asked, were not these ideas founded on actual 
cases of transmission of diseases from animals to man— tapeworm 
from pig's flesh, for example ? In the case of the Jews, I think 
not, because perfectly harmless animals and things were re- 
garded as unclean, while ox flesh, which in the East is often 
measled, was not prohibited. It is stated, however, as a sme 
qud noil, that all sacrificial animals must be free from blemish, 
and, in the light of our present knowledge of pathologj^, this 
might be, and often is supposed to have had a hygienic bearing. 
I would point out, however, that deformed animals (without 
disease) were also excluded, and that the same rules apphed to 
the sacrificial beasts which were not eaten. The inference is 
rather, that a second-rate article would not be accepted by the 
god. Eobertson Smith explains, that " without blemish " 
meant that the sacred life was normally embodied in the animal, 
and I think that this idea persisted long after the intensely 
sacrificial idea of slaughter had disappeared, owing to the 
increasing desire for carnivorous diet. Indeed, it persists 
to-day, for the Rabbi still performs a religious inspection of 
the carcases. No one can deny that these rules would have 
the same effect as the inspection performed by Christians for 
hygienic reasons. The question is, however, did they arise 
with the ancients from hygienic motives ? After a perusal of 
the writings of some distinguished bibhcal scholars, and those 
of ancient travellers like Herodotus, I have concluded that 
they did not. Moreover, if any such idea did exist, it does not 



6 MEAT INSPECTION 

appear in the teaching of Christ ivide Matt. xv. 11): "There 
is nothing from without that entereth into him that can defile 
him," etc. This was in reply to those who held out for tradi- 
tional worship by the law. 

Paul characterised as doctrines of devils the command- 
ments to abstain from meats which God created (1 Tim. iv.). 
It is true that the weak-kneed Christians in Antioch and Syria 
were told to abstain from blood and things strangled ; but that 
was a diplomatic stroke to make things easier for them (Paul, 
1 Cor. viii. 1), 

The Levitical law demands that the blood be poured out, 
and the same idea is at the bottom of the injunction to abstain 
from the flesh of strangled animals and those torn by beasts. 
I do not think, however, that any one denies the religious 
significance of their prohibitions : the blood is a thing too 
holy for men to touch. All doubt on the subject is dispelled 
in Leviticus xvii. 11, 12 : " For the soul of all flesh is in the 
blood," etc. In verse 12, even the stranger must not partake 
of blood, presumably because of the supposed contagious nature 
of uncleanness. In Deuteronomy xiv. 21, it was allowed to 
sell to the stranger the flesh of an animal " that had died 
of itself." If the Jews who practised this considered that 
such flesh was hurtful to health, they were certainly not of 
a Christian disposition, although the same reproach might 
be attached to our present irregular system of inspection. 
Animals considered likely to be seized in an efficiently 
inspected abattoir are sent to the many places where the 
inspection is performed by retired stone-masons, plumbers, 
and others of the same class. The prohibition against eating 
the caul fat and that of the kidney seems to have originated 
from similar ideas. We pour out the blood now, because bled 
meat keeps better and is less repulsive. The carcases of 
animals which have been trampled to death (suffocated) by 
others in railway trucks— these carcases come too frequently 
into our abattoirs— are seized, because they are considered 
unmarketable. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

Curious ideas concerning the toxic properties of blood 
were abroad in ancient times. Psammenites, king of Egypt, 
came by his death through being forced to drink bull's blood 
(Herodotus, iii. 15). Themistocles (449 B.C.) is reported to 
have committed suicide by drinking the blood of a bull. King 
Midas is said to have had a similar end (Strabo). The idea 
probably originated in Egypt, where male kine were held 
sacredr Pliny (23-79 a.d.), quoting from Nicander (185-135 
B.C.), prescribes radishes (? cabbage) as an antidote to bull's 
blood (Pliny, xx. 13) ; and in xxxi. 47, a combination of nitrum 
and laser is recommended. In Book xi. 91, he says that bull's 
blood coagulates and hardens the most speedily of all, and 
hence it is so particularly deadly when drunk. Again, we 
are told that bull's blood is reckoned among the poisons, except 
at ^gira, where the Priestess of the Earth took a draught 
of bull's blood when about to foretell coming events (xxvii. 41). 
Here the supernatural connection is still retained. Pliny 
also tells us that he-goats' blood was used for sharpening 
instruments ; the rust that forms makes them sharper than 
any file can. 

Paulus ^gineta (seventh century a.d., Be Re Medica, 
Libra Septem, v. 54, Adams) writes : " If the blood of a newly- 
killed bull be drunk, it brings on dyspnoea and suffocation, 
obstructing the passages about the tonsils and the parts con- 
cerned in deglutition with violent spasm." I have been told 
that ladies in South America drink warm defibrinated blood 
to improve the comijlexion. Out of curiosity I have myself 
tasted bull's blood, so I may be considered a living protest 
against the want of veracity in the statements of the ancients. 
A good case can be made out even for the view that there was 
a religious meaning in the injunction against the use of putrefy- 
ing flesh; but I am quite willing to credit Adam with the 
ability to appreciate what appealed to him through his senses. 

I have often heard it said by irresponsible persons— indeed, 
the saying is not limited to a small circle— that Jews enjoy 
to-day a greater freedom than other people from tuberculosis 



8 MEAT INSPECTION 

owing to tlieir observance of the laws relating to animal flesli ; 

— some will even assert that the communicability of this dis- 
ease from animals to human beings was suspected by Moses. 

Putting aside altogether the fact that animal flesh is one 
of the smallest factors in the spread of tuberculosis, the Jews 
to-day enjoy no such immunity from this plague of civilisation. 
That they met with tuberculosis in cattle I quite believe, but 
I do not think that a strong case is made out by those who 
quote Leviticus xxii. 22 as proving its existence. The verse 
referred to prohibits offering animals with running sores— 
running sore is the rendering given in the most recent English 
translation (The Polychrome Bible, " Leviticus," by the Eev. 
E. S. Driver, D.D., and the Eev. H. A. White, M.A., 1898). 
I should prefer to rest my opinion on the fact that the lungs 
are examined by the Eabbi before the animal is passed as free 
from blemish. 

In the.Gemara (fifth century a.d.) there are references to 
lesions which must have been tuberculous. 

Let us return now to the measled pig, for he is the chief 
witness for the defence. 

In warm ch mates, fresh {i.e. not preserved) pork seems 
often to be the cause of serious internal disturbance of a kind 
that would be quite intelligible to the most primitive mind,— 
even children are able to co-relate the sequence of events which 
follow upon certain repasts. At the present day it is forbidden 
in some places to slaughter pigs for food during the hot season 

— for example, in Spain, Greece, Monaco (Morot). 

It is unlikely, however, that Moses ever had the oppoi'tunity 
of studying the effects of pork, measled or healthy, on human 
beings, because the pig is one of the most ancient of the taboos. 
We gather from the w^ritings of Aristophanes (444-380 B.C.) 
that measles was known to the Greeks in his time (T/te Knights, 
Hickie's Aristophanes, vol. i. p. 70 : " And, by Jove, we will 
put a skewer into his mouth in cook's fashion, and then draw 
out his tongue from within, and examine his inside well and 
manfully, while he gapes, if it be pimply "). 



INTRODUCTION 9 

Herodotus (ii. 38) tells us that at Memphis kme were sacred 
to Epaphus. The priest pulls out the tongue and examines 
it to see if it is pure as to the right marks. Herodotus again 
(iii. 28) tells us that the calf Apis must have on its back the 
figure of an eagle in white against the black ground of the 
coat, and on the tongue a black mark in the form of a beetle. 

I find in Smith's Classical Dictionary that the mark on 
the toBgue is said to be like the insect cantharus. The latter 
is not the least like measles ; beside, it had to be present at 
birth, and measles is never found then. There are no grounds, 
therefore, for supposing that Apis was a measled calf. 

Tapeworms were known in Hippocrates' time (460 B.C.), 
probably long before him ; but according to Leuckart they were 
chiefly the variety T. saginata (ox infection). Hippocrates, 
however, states that pork is a healthy and nutritious food 
(Celsus). Bladder-worms or measles were described by Aris- 
totle (384-327 B.C., Arist. Hist. Animal, viii. 21) ; but it was 
not until the end of the seventeenth century that their animal 
nature was suspected (Eedi, 1683). Aristotle also mentions 
fiat-worms (ibid. v. 17). 

The connection between the bladder-worms (measles) and 
the taenijB, however, was not thought of until 1760, when 
Pallas wrote on the subject ; and it was only in 1854 that 
Klichenmeister experimentally established that pork measles 
(cysticercus celluloscB) was the cause of tmnia solium in human 
beings. 

The evidence derived from the history of comparative 
pathology, then, renders it still more doubtful that the Levitical 
laws had a hygienic origin. 

The probable frequency of bladder-worms in the pig would 
have prevented many of these animals from being regarded as 
" without blemish." It is difficult to believe, however, that 
the species was tabooed on this account ; for the bovine animal, 
a species not proscribed, was frequently the host of bladder- 
worms. 

Spencer {De legihus Judcearum, cap. xxxi.) discusses the 



lo MEAT INSPECTION 

ideas of several ancient writers on this subject. Most of their 
opinions, however, are purely speculative, and they are not 
backed up by evidence. 

The Koran (Mohammed, 570-632 a.d.) contains many 
restrictions on the use of animal flesh, which, with a few ex- 
ceptions, are similar to those imposed by the Jewish doctrines. 
It is forbidden to eat that which hath died of itself, blood, 
things strangled, flesh of animals torn by wild beasts, and 
swine-flesh ; but it was no crime to eat such things in time of 
famine (Sale's Koran, chap. ii. p. 18, chap. v. p. 73, chap. vi. 
pp. 90, 100, chap. xvi. p. 205). In chapter vi. pp. 101, 102, 
the precepts of idolators regarding certain flesh are condemned. 
Presumably they were wrong because those who held them 
were not of the faith. The other restrictions seem to have 
been founded on ancient prejudice. Certainly no mention is 
made of a hygienic reason in the Koran. 

Let us now examine the evidence furnished by tuberculosis. 
It was not until 1865 that Villemin demonstrated that tuber- 
culosis of animals and human beings could be conferred by 
inoculation. Most of our present knowledge regarding this 
disease dates from Koch's discovery of the tubercle bacillus 
in 1882. 

Still, tuberculosis in animals killed for human food engrossed 
the attention of hygienists in Europe in the eleventh century, 
as it does to-day. 

The laws of the Church in the Frankonian part of Germany 
then forbade the use of flesh from tuberculous (?) oxen (Fried- 
berger and Frohner Fr. ; trans. Cadiot and Eies). 

In 1363, letters patent of King John of France decreed 
against the use of tuberculous flesh (Morot, quoted by Moreau). 

At Munich, in 1370, the sale of the flesh from tuberculous 
animals was forbidden ; other German towns followed the 
example of Munich (Friedberger and Frohner, op. cit^. 

The seventeenth century was marked in the various parts 
of Germany by the alternate enactment and abrogation of laws 
regarding the use of flesh from tuberculous animals. 



INTR OD UCTION 1 1 

In the early part of the century a relation was traced between 
tubercle and syphilis, and this led to a wholesale destruction 
of tuberculous carcases. In 1783, however, the Sanitary 
College of Berlin denied the supposed relationship, with the 
result that the embargo was removed. During this con- 
troversy on sanitary politics. Dr. Zweirlein publicly drank in 
the market-place of Briickenau a broth made of tuberculous 
material. I do not know if Zweirlein developed tuberculosis, — 
possibly he did not ; but I know of a good many animals which 
have come by their death in this way, and it is beyond dispute 
that many human beings have died from ingestion of tubercle- 
infected material. 

The Fifth International Congress of Veterinarians, held at 
Paris in 1889, voted almost unanimously for the total seizure 
of tuberculous flesh. The Sixth Congress, 1896, was much 
more moderate in its finding. To-day nobody denies the 
possibility of human beings contracting tuberculosis by eating 
infected material. The question is, under what circumstances 
is the flesh of a tuberculous animal likely to contain tubercle 
bacilli ? 

We know this pretty well now, but many municipal com- 
munities still prefer either to do without inspection or to con- 
demn large quantities of harmless flesh rather than appoint 
an efficiently qualified Meat Inspector. I am of opinion that 
a code of laws dealing with this subject is necessary. I do not 
think it possible, however, to devise a workable code, unless 
it be on the most general lines. Such a one would fulfil all 
requirements, if there were scientifically trained inspectors 
to interpret it. I hold that the veterinary surgeon is from his 
education the only one who at present is capable of doing this 
with equal justice to the butcher and to the public. 

The Corporation of Edinburgh has reason to be proud of 
the part it has taken in the advancement of meat inspection. 
Not only has it acted as the guardian of a veterinary school, 
but it was the first municipal body to organise a qualified staflf 
of Meat Inspectors, and it has been able to supply them to 



1 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

other towns, which are beginning to see the wisdom of appoint- 
ing suitably educated officers. 

The report of the Tuberculosis Commission (1898) says : 
" We may add that in the Edinburgh Public Slaughter-house 
we witnessed meat inspection carried on more nearly on the 
enlightened system of the best continental abattoirs than 
it was our fortune to see in any other part of the United King- 
dom. Here there are six Meat Inspectors, of whom four are 
veterinary surgeons, one has been a butcher, and one a cattle- 
salesman. We were very favourably impressed with the 
organisation, though the standard by which the meat of tuber- 
culous carcases was judged appeared to us unnecessarily severe " 
(Report, p. 7, sec. 21). 

I would like here to state that the present condition of 
things in Edinburgh is largely due to the advice given to the 
Corporation by the late Professor Walley, Principal of the 
Dick College. 

Still, there is room for improvement. The booth system 
— the one in use in Edinburgh— is inferior to the central hall 
system ; but, of course, this could not be changed unless new 
premises were being constructed. The inspectors, however, 
might be provided with a properly equipped laboratory in 
which to make their more particular examinations, — this 
could be done at very little expense ; but no abattoir in this 
country is properly equipped for the purposes of meat inspection. 

The importance of the microscope in meat inspection is 
too evident to require explanation, but it is worse than useless 
in the hands of the untrained. 

The development of our use of salt with meat is intimately 
connected with that of man's civilisation and the evolution of 
his carnivorous habits. Purely carnivorous animals and men 
display no desire for sodium chloride, but as the wandering tribes 
began to settle on the soil, and eat vegetables, the desire for salt 
came. They even added it to their cereal ofTerings (Leviticus). 
Bunge (Physiological and Pathological Chemistry, Lect. vii.) 
traces this desire to the amount of potassium swallowed 



INTRO D UCTION 1 3 

by eaters of vegetables. Potassium, he says, causes the excre- 
tion of sodium chloride. According to Bunge, then, the 
craving for salt is a request by the tissues that this loss should 
be made good. Quoting Ditniar, he describes how the Russian 
Government failed to get the Kamtschadales to use salted 
instead of rotten fish from their silo pits. The Kamtschadales 
are icthyophagous, and they positively loathe salt. The 
primitwe vegetarian races, on the contrary, crave for sodium 
chloride. Mungo Park stated that the negroes on the coast 
of Sierra Leone would barter their wives for it (Bunge, op. cii.). 

The question of our right to kill and eat animals is one 
of great antiquity. Even to-day the right is not unanimously 
admitted. We see the contrary view in the ancient idea of the 
" Golden Age," and at present it appears in a few con- 
scientious abstainers from flesh. 

At the Diipolia, when an ox was slain, the participators 
were tried for the offence. The blame was shifted on to the 
man who used the knife, but ultimately it was settled on the 
weapon, which was cast into the sea as a murderer. To-day, 
the doubting flesh-eaters quote Genesis i. 28 in justification of 
their act. 

Personally, I eat meat twice daily, and I believe that the 
future is for the flesh-eating nations ; but I strongly think that 
a great deal could and should be done to render the killing 
more humane. Every animal, large or small, should be stunned 
before being bled. I do not think that a desire for a small 
additional degree of lighter tint in the flesh is a sufficient reason 
for making an animal suffer great pain, nor do I admit that 
preliminary stunning makes any material difference in the 
amount of blood which can be extracted from the body. I 
have no intention of rousing public indignation by harrowing 
details, for I believe the object can be gained by a simple men- 
tion to the right authorities. I am aware, too, that many 
butchers pay due regard to the sensory nerves of the victims 
of slaughter ; but I hold that in every abattoir the most humane 
method of slaughter ought to be enforced. 



1 4 ME A T INSPE CTION 



STATUTORY PROVISIONS IN REGARD TO THE DUTIES 
OF MEAT INSPECTORS 

It is a crime or misdemeanour knowingly to sell for human 
consumption meat which is unfit for that purpose ; and if 
such a sale be made, and death ensue from partaking of the 
meat, the seller can be indicted for manslaughter. The statut- 
ory enactments have for their object the protection of the 
public by the detection and prevention of this crime. Unfor- 
tunately the regulations are not in identical terms for all parts 
of Great Britain and Ireland. There are separate general 
Statutes for each of the three kingdoms, and one for the 
Metropolis of London ; but, besides, there exist many local Acts, 
the provisions of which are to be read as additional to the 
enactments in the general Acts. The medical officer of health, 
and the sanitary inspector or inspector of nuisances, in the 
exercise of the duties laid on them by these Acts, are under 
the supervision of the Local Government Boards of the respective 
countries, who have issued rules for their guidance. 

The provisions of the Statute law with respect to meat 
inspection which apply to England and Wales, outside the 
administrative county of London, are contained in sees. 116- 
119 of the Public Health Act of 1875, and in certain sections 
of other Acts which are incorporated with it ; and for Ireland, 
in sees. 132-135 of the Pubhc Health (Ireland) Act, 1878. 
The provisions in both these Acts relating to the duties of 
meat inspectors are in similar terms. They empower any 
medical officer of health,, or inspector of nuisances, at all 
reasonable times (even on Sundays) to inspect and examine 
any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, or fish exposed 
for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of 
preparation for sale, and intended for the food of man, — the 
proof that the same was not exposed or deposited for any such 
purpose, or was not intended for the food of man, resting with 
the party charged ; and if any such animal, carcase, meat. 



INTRO D UCTION 1 5 

poultry, game, flesli, or fish appears to such medical officer 
or inspector to be diseased or unsound or unwholesome or 
unfit for the use of man, he may seize and carry away the same 
himself or by an assistant, in order to have the same dealt 
with by a justice, who may condemn it and order it to be 
destroyed. For the purpose of this inspection, power is given 
to the inspector of nuisances, the officer of health, or any othei' 
officer appointed for that purpose, in all urban districts, and 
in all imral districts to which the provision may be extended 
by the Local Government Board, at all reasonable times, with 
or without assistants, to enter into and inspect any building 
or place whatsoever used for the sale of butcher's meat, or for 
slaughtering cattle ; and when the building in which the 
diseased animal or meat is believed to be kept is not such a 
place, a warrant may be granted by any justice to any such 
officer on complaint made by him on oath. 

On the condemnation of the diseased animal or nieat, pro- 
ceedings may be taken against the person to whom the same 
belongs or did belong at the time of exposure for sale, or in 
whose possession or on whose premises the same was found, 
and he may be punished by fine or imprisonment. Any person 
obstructing an officer in the execution of his duty is liable to 
punishment. 

The provisions of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, 
which apply to the administrative county of London, are similar 
to those of the Act of 1875, with the undernoted exceptions. 
The medical officer or sanitary inspector may icithout a warrant 
enter any premises for the purposes of his inspection. Before 
proceedings can be taken against a party in England outside 
London, there must have been exposure for sale at the time 
of the seizure ; but in London that is not necessary. In either 
case it has been decided by the Courts of law that personal 
knowledge of the party charged is not an element in the offence. 
Provision is also made for the punishment of sellers or con- 
signors of diseased meat, when the same is seized in the hands 
of another party. The Statute also provides for affixing to 



1 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

the premises occupied by any person who has been convicted 
twice within twelve months of knowingly and wilfully com- 
mitting an offence, a notice of such convictions. 

The Pubhc Health (Scotland) Act, 1897, contains the 
provisions relating to meat inspection for Scotland. The 
provisions offer considerable points of variance from the English 
enactments. It is provided that the medical officer or sanitary 
inspector, or a veterinary surgeon approved for the purposes of 
the Act, may at all reasonable times enter any premises within 
the district of the Local Authority (whether, it will be observed, 
they are premises for the sale of meat or a slaughter-house or 
not), or search any cart or vehicle, or any barrow, basket, 
sack, bag, or parcel, in order to inspect and examine, and may 
inspect and examine, any animal, alive or dead, or any article 
intended for the food of man which is exposed for sale, or de- 
posited in any place, or is in course of transmission, for the 
purpose of sale or of preparation for sale,— the proof that the 
same was not exposed, etc., resting with the person charged ; 
and he may seize and carry away the same in order to have 
it dealt with by a sheriff, magistrate, or justice. It is further 
provided that in the case of a living animal, the medical officer 
or sanitary inspector, unless he is himself a qualified veterinary 
surgeon, shall be accompanied by a veterinary surgeon approved 
as above mentioned. The police force have power to assist 
generally in executing and enforcing these enactments. If it 
appears to the magistrate that any animal which has been seized 
or is liable to be seized, is diseased or unsound or unfit for the 
food of man, he shall condemn the same, and order it to be ' 
destroyed or so disposed of as to prevent it from being exposed 
for sale or used for the food of man. 

It is further provided that the person to whom the animal 
belongs or did belong at the time of the sale, or exposure, or 
deposit, or transmission for the purpose of sale, or of preparation 
for sale, or in whose possession or on whose premises the same 
was found, shall be liable to a penalty, unless he proves that 
he and any person acting on his behalf did not know, and could 



INTK OD UCTION 1 7 

not Avitli reasonable care have known, that it was m such a 
condition. If the Court finds that a person knowingly and 
wilfully committed the offence, he is liable to imiDrisonment. 
There is a further provision that if such person proves that 
the animal or part thereof so condemned was, within a reason- 
able time prior to the seizure thereof, examined upon the 
premises where the animal was slaughtered, and passed by a 
veterinary surgeon aj)proved as above provided, called in foi' 
the purpose, and who shall have granted a certificate in the 
terms provided in the Statute, he shall be exempt fi'oni penalty 
or imprisonment for the offence. To facilitate the obtain- 
ing of such a certificate from a veterinary surgeon, Local 
Authorities may appoint a place and time at which a veterinary 
surgeon shall attend for the purpose of examining any animal, 
alive or dead, and issue a certificate passing or condemning 
it in whole or in part. If the certificate is a certificate passing 
the animal, it shall set forth the name of the owner, the date 
and hour of examination, and such further particulars as 
the Local Authority may prescribe for the identification of 
the animal. A copy of any certificate shall forthwith be sent 
by the veterinary surgeon to the chief constable of the juris- 
diction in which the examination took place, and the certificate 
itself shall be sent by the person selling the animal or carcase 
immediately after the sale, and not more than seven days from 
the date of the certificate, to the chief constable of the juris- 
diction in which the sale of the animal or carcase took place. 
There is a penalty on a veterinary surgeon or any person contra- 
vening these enactments. 

The Scotch Act also enacts that no carcase shall be sub- 
mitted for examination unless as a whole carcase, including 
the thoracic and abdominal viscera, in such a manner that 
the examiner shall be readily able to satisfy himself that the 
organs are those of the carcase under inspection. As in the 
London Act, provisions are made for the punishment of sellers 
or consignors of diseased meat seized in another party's hands, 
and for affixing to the premises of any person who has been 



1 8 MEAT INSPECTION 

convicted twice within twelve months of a notice of such con- 
victions. Penalties are also imposed upon any person obstruct- 
ing a medical officer, sanitary inspector, or veterinary surgeon 
in the performance of his duty. 

It may be here observed that it is generally admitted that 
none of the Acts authorise the inspector to make any incision 
on any animal, carcase, or meat, without the permission of 
the owner. 

With the exception of the provisions in the Scotch Act 
with regard to the veterinary surgeon, no special qualifications 
are required in persons employed as Meat Inspectors by the 
public health authorities. 

It is well to mention here that, from the evidence laid before 
the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis of 1896, it appears 
that the great majority of diseased carcases, etc., are destroyed 
by voluntary arrangement between the inspector and the 
butcher, without the intervention of a magistrate. 

There only remains to be noted the provisions of the Sale 
of Horse Flesh, etc., Eegulation Act, 1889. It applies to the 
three kingdoms, and provides that all shops selhng the flesh 
of horses, asses, or mules shall have an intimation to that effect 
affixed to them, and such flesh shall not be sold as other meat. 
Moreover, the medical officer, or other officer under direction 
of the Local Authority, may inspect any meat suspected to be 
the flesh of horses, asses, or mules which is exposed for sale 
as human food in any place other than such shop ; and if it 
appears to be the flesh of any of these animals, he may seize 
it in order to have it dealt with by a justice or the sheriff. A 
warrant to enter any building other than such shop to search 
for meat suspected to be horse flesh illegally concealed, may 
be granted by a justice on sworn complaint by the medical 
officer or other officer ; and the obstruction of such officer is 
created an offence. 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 

It is advisable that animals inteiided for liumaii food sliould 
be subjected to a veterinary inspection before slaughter. This 
method of procedure has many advantages. It would render 
possible the exclusion from the market of the carcases of 
animals which have been slaughtered on account of a disease 
which might render the flesh injurious without producing 
anatomical alterations. 

It would also enable the inspector to pass certain carcases ; 
whereas, in the absence of information concerning the con- 
dition of the animal during hfe, he might feel compelled to 
give the benefit of the doubt to the consumer. Further, the 
veterinary inspector would frequently be able to advise the 
proprietor against having his animal slaughtered when suft'er- 
ing from some transient afi'ection which would almost certainly 
entail seizure of the carcase. In making an examination of 
a live animal, its temperature should be taken, and if 
symptoms pointing to disease of any special organ be observed, 
that organ should receive the attention of the inspector after 
slaughter. 

In large abattoirs it is only possible to carry on an adequate 
post-mortem inspection where the central hall arrangement 
is in use. Where slaughtering is carried on in several booths 
at the same time, it is obvious that an impossible number of 
inspectors would be necessary in order to see each carcase before 
the butcher has had time to remove diseased portions or to 
substitute the organs of one animal for another. The veter- 
inary inspectors may have a corps of unqualified assistants who 
have received a training in the recognition of diseased organs. 

19 



2 MEAT INSPECTION 

These assistants will be able to draw liis attention to departures 
from the normal, but they should not be allowed to condemn 
or pass abnormal flesh and organs. 

When the post-mortem inspection is being carried on, as 
it should be, during the process of dressing, the inspector is 
almost bound to examine the organs in the order they are 
exposed by the butcher. He will first obtain a view of the 
subcutaneous tissues, and the superficially placed organs, like 
the udder, during the skinning process ; but while the animal is 
being bled he may make an examination of the feet. He will 
next see the peritoneum, the stomachs, the intestines, and the 
spleen as the abdomen is cut open. The pelvic viscera can 
be best examined after removal, but a preliminary examination 
may be made while the intestines are being removed. The 
lymphatic glands attached to all the organs should receive 
particular attention. The liver can also be examined at this 
stage ; but a better view can be obtained of the organ after 
its removal from the body. This is done after the intestines 
have been cut out and the skinning process completed. As 
a carcase is being elevated at the posterior end, the chest is 
opened. The thoracic organs should be first examined in situ, 
as abnormal adhesions may be present. The examination of 
the head and the organs attached to it may be left to the last. 
When the nature of a lesion in any organ is not apparent 
to the naked eye, portions should be removed for a further 
examination in the laboratory, which should be attached to 
every abattoir. In this case, both the organs and the carcase 
from which they have been removed should be carefully marked, 
otherwise confusion is likely to occur. 

After the carcase is dressed, the condition of the pleura 
and peritoneum may be further examined. The kidneys can 
also be examined when the carcase is hung up. The super- 
ficially placed glands, such as the prepectoral, lumbar, supra- 
sternal, and supramamniary, if present, should be incised. The 
colour and condition of the flesh should be noted at those 
parts where the muscular tissue has been exposed. The bones 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 21 

of the vertebral column should also be examined. The con- 
dition of the flesh itself can hardly be judged until about twelve 
hours have elapsed since slaughter; but if the inspector is 
doubtful about how the carcase will turn out, he should detain 
it for further inspection. A proper opinion of the flesh can 
only be formed from the examination of a freshly-cut surface. 
The superficial layers, which have been exposed to air, may be 
of a Bosy colour, although the flesh beneath is very darlv and 
repulsive in appearance. 

It often happens that a carcase which the butcher expects 
to be condemned, is carelessly dressed. 

The condition of the carcase in fat should also be observed. 
The flesh of emaciated animals is likely to be tough, fibrous, 
and flavourless. It is likely to be innutritions, but the degree 
of emaciation which calls for seizure is difficult to lay down. 

When a carcase is sent into the abattoir after being dressed, 
the inspector has less chance of finding traces of disease. He 
should make a particularly careful examination of the serous 
membranes and lymphatic glands. If the pleura has been 
stripped and the glands of the chest region removed, the car- 
case should be condemned. A carcase should not be mutilated 
without the consent of the inspector. In stripped carcases one 
will often find tubercle in the prepectoral glands. It is advis- 
able that when a carcase is sent in dressed, the organs, with 
the exception of the bowels, should accompany it. It would 
be difficult to manage this, however, in the case of dead meat 
imported from abroad, for healthy organs could always be 
substituted for diseased ones ; and it would, of course, be impos- 
sible to leave the most important organs in situ. It is hardly 
possible to subject imported meat to an adequate inspection. 
The animals, however, might be properly inspected at the time 
of slaughter by British inspectors located abroad. This, of 
course, would not be practicable, unless it were made a 
rule only to accept from abroad dead meat which had been 
slaughtered at one or two centres. 

The skinning process is sometimes performed in calves by 



2 2 MEAT INSPECTION 

blowing air under the skin through a small puncture. The 
hole is closed and the inflated part is struck with the hand in 
order to drive the gas along under the skin. The subcutaneous 
tissues are generally emphysematous when this method of 
skinning has been practised. The butcher should not be 
allowed to inflate the skin from his lungs, but there is no reason 
why an insufflator should not be used. 

The knives which have been used to dress the carcase of 
an animal suffering from a contagious disease should be steril- 
ised before being employed again ; it should be the duty of the 
inspector to see to this. It is very necessary in the case of a 
knife employed to cut out tuberculous organs from a carcase 
which is likely to be passed. This knife should on no account 
be used on other parts of the carcase. The best method of 
sterihsing instruments is to boil them in water, and arrange- 
ments for doing this should be at hand in the slaughtering hall. 

Frozen meat has usually a diffusely red colour when thawed, 
owing to the hsemaglobin being dissolved in the fluids and 
permeating the tissues. This is especially the case when the 
thawing process has been conducted too rapidly. When a 
joint has been frozen and thawed several times, as may happen 
with unsold meat in a butcher's shop, one often finds that the 
flesh shows gelatinous-looking areas. 

Chilled meat {i.e. meat kept at a few degrees above 
freezing-point) has also a bright red colour. The tissues 
are less altered than when they have been actually frozen. 

Salted or 'pickled meat should also be carefully inspected. 
When the process has been improperly carried out, the 
flesh may decompose. It becomes moist, slimy, and mouldy 
on the surface. A steel trocar or tryer may be inserted into 
the substance of the flesh, and examined for traces of a putre- 
factive odour on withdrawal. If the inspector has good reason 
to suspect that the preserved meat is decomposing, he should 
cut into the deeper layers around the bone, for it is there 
that the best evidence can usually be obtained. The meat 
which has been salted has sometimes been bad from the first. 



Pl/lte I 




Hind Quarter of Bullock. 

a. Scrotal fat. 

b. Penis. 

c. Retractor muscle of Penis. 

d. Pelvic bone. 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 23 

Flesh preserved by sucli chemical agents as boracic and sali- 
cylic acids, should not be allowed into the market, as these 
agents may have an injurious action on human beings. 



DIFFERENCES IN CARCASES, FLESH, AND ORGANS 
REFERABLE TO SPECIES, SEX, AND AGE 

It «B possible to tell a good deal about species, sex, and age 
by an examination of the dressed carcase. The student of 
comparative anatomy will have little difficulty in determining 
the species and sex when dealing with an entire carcase. 

His task, however, will be more difficult when the carcase 
has been cut up for the market, for it must be remembered 
that a minute examination of the bones will not always be 
possible. The question of age is, of course, best settled by an 
examination of the teeth. 

In the absence of the head, however, one can form an approx- 
imate idea of the age from the condition of the bones and flesh. 

Tliie carcases of bovine animals.— The carcase of the bull 
shows great muscular development in the regions of the 
shoulders, the neck, and the hind quarters. The neck is thicker 
than that of the ox, the heifer, or the cow. When one looks 
at the posterior surface of the dressed carcase, one sees at the 
junction of the neck and back a figure resembling the head 
of Napoleon. This appearance is due to the marked develop- 
ment of the panniculus muscle, and it is just as well seen in 
the bullock. The penis is seen on the left side of the abdomen, 
or if the organ has been removed a furrow is left. The retractor 
penis muscle is well developed, and the erector penis is exceed- 
ingly prominent. The joints are larger than in the female. 
The anterior part of the ischio- pubic symphysis is very 
well developed. It forms a distinct tubercle. The line of 
the symphysis is distinctly curved, and at its posterior part 
it forms an acute angle with the line of adipose tissue which 
runs round the inner aspect of the thigh (Plate I.). In the 
bullock the quarters are not so well developed. They are 



24 MEAT INSPECTION 

less rotund. The penis and the retractor muscle are less 
prominent than in the bull, and the erector muscles are 
atrophied. The anterior tubercle of the pubis is smaller 
than in the bull.. The scrotal fat is distinctly prominent and 
nodulated. 

In the female the quarters are still less rotund than in 
the bullock. In the cow the posterior line of the hind quarters 
is usually concave, the subcutaneous covering of adipose tissue 
is poorly developed, and the angles of the haunch are prominent. 
In young fat cows, however, the muscular development may 
be equal to that of the heifer. The female pelvis is broader than 
that of the male, but the anterior tubercle of the pubis is poorly 
developed. The floor of the pelvis is less curved than in the 
male, and the internal fat of the thigh is in a sense concentric 
with it (Fig. 1). In the female the udder is present, or the 
marks of it are left when it has been removed. These marks 
in the cow extend from the inguinal region to a considerable 
distance along the abdominal wall. They are triangular in 
shape, with the apex directed forward. The fat at the base 
of the udder is often fairly well developed, and the supramam- 
mary lymphatic glands are large. In the heifer the mammary 
gland is poorly developed. It is surrounded by a layer of fat, 
and the gland tissue is whiter in colour than that of the cow. 

In animals of the bovine species the bones of the lower row 
of the carpus are t^A-o in number. In young animals the 
cartilages covering the articular surfaces are blue or rosy, 
but as the animal advances in years the colour becomes white. 
Up to the age of three years it is possible to cut through the 
ischio-pubic symphysis with a knife. After three years the 
junctional cartilage becomes osseous. Up to the age of four 
years the costal cartilage at the ninth rib can be cut through 
with comparative ease. At the age of five this is difficult, 
and at six it is almost impossible to sever them with a knife. 
According to the observations of Bunge, the line of junction 
between the superior spines of the dorsal vertebrae and their 
summits is cartilaginous up to the sixth year. A very thin 



Plate II. 




Hind Quarter of Heifer 

a. Udder, very small, surrounded by fat. 

b. Section through pelvic bone. 

!.c. Saero-lumbar (or kidney) fat — kidney removed, 
d. Sections through muscles of haunch. 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 25 

line of cartilage may even persist up to tlie eighth year in the 
first four or five vertebrae. From the sixth year to about 
the twelfth, the separation is marked by a red line, but after 
this all trace of a separating line has disappeared. These 
changes in the bones, however, are greatly influenced by 
the breed and the feeding. As a general rule, the osseous 
tissue of the bodies of the vertebrae becomes denser with age, 
and \h& intervertebral discs get thinner. 

The left kidney of the ox is floating, the right is fixed. 

The carcase of the horse.— Tliere is little chance of a horse's 
carcase being mistaken for that of an ox. The neck of the horse 
is longer, and the bodies of the cervical vertebrae are more 
elongated. 

The bones of the horse's limbs are longer than those of the 
ox, and the lower row of the carpus is made up of three or may 
be four bones. The sternum is cariniform, and the line of 
the ischio-pubic symphysis is almost straight. Moreover, the 
horse has eighteen pairs of ribs, while the ox has only thirteen 
pairs. The ribs of the horse are much narrower than those 
of the ox. 

The carcases of the sheep and goat.— The carcase of the 
sheep is only likely to be mistaken for that of the goat. 
Both have thirteen ribs. In fat sheep the external covering 
of adipose tissue is well developed ; in the goat it is practically 
absent. The neck, body, and quarters of the goat are longer 
than those of the sheep. The carcase of the former might be 
described as being long and lean. Moreover, the transverse 
lumbar process of the goat are curved in a downward 
direction. 

The carcase of the pig usually has the head attached, 
and its characters are so distinctive that no mistake should 
arise. The pig has fourteen ribs. The neck is very short. 
In the dressing process the skin of the pig is not removed : 
the carcase is scalded and scraped. The subcutaneous fat 
is very white and soft, but it is only seen where the abdomen is 
cut open, unless an incision be made into the other parts. 



26 MEAT INSPECTION 

The rrmscular tissue in the healthy ox should be of a florid 
hue in adult animals ; being brighter in young animals up 
to about eighteen months old, and darker in hue after the age 
of six. In certain positions— the limbs, for example— the flesh 
should be almost free from intermixture with fat ; in others 
its connective tissues should be so infiltrated or intermixed 
with that substance as to give it a distinctly mottled or 
marbled appearance on section. This appearance is very 
well seen in the longissimus dorsi between the sixth and 
eighth ribs. The flesh should be of firm or slightly 
elastic consistence, tolerably dry after being exposed for a 
short time to the atmosphere, and rigor mortis (death stiffen- 
ing) should be marked, — in other words, the carcase should 
" set " or " firm." Immediately after slaughter the flesh is 
brownish red and flabby. It sets in about twelve hours. It 
should possess a pleasant, sweet aroma, and should exhale, 
when exposed to the action of heat, a savoury odour. The 
graining of the muscles on transverse section should be 
fine. It is coarser in the muscles of the neck and ster- 
num than elsewhere. In old cows, but more especially in 
the bull, the flesh is stringy and darker in colour. Bull flesh 
has an odour sui generis. 

The flesh of the calf is always pale red in colour, and not 
very firm in consistence. The fat resembles tallow. The 
colour of the flesh will depend largely upon whether the animal 
has or has not been bled prior to slaughter, but the custom now 
is to bleed calves. In the newly horn or unborn calf —slink 
veal of the butchers— the flesh has a watery, gelatinous appear- 
ance, and the fat resembles tallow which has been macerated 
for some time in water. The lungs of a still-born calf are 
collapsed. Calf flesh possesses a distinctive odour. While 
it is, by some manufacturers, largely substituted for chicken 
in the manufacture of ham, chicken, and tongue, other 
substitutions for veal are rarely practised. It is as well, how- 
ever, to note that the flesh of a large dog has a close resem- 
blance to that of the young calf, and when the head, with 



Plate iii. 




Hind Quarter of Cow. 
a.a. Site of udder — removed. 
i.b. Deep inguinal or mammary lymphatic glands. 

c. Site of sacro-lumbar group of glands. 

d. Site of lumbar (kidney) group of glands. 

e. Spot opposite to wliich (on the outside of the flank) the superficial flank 

group of glands are situated. 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 27 

the legs as far up as the knees and hocks, have been re- 
moved, the one carcase may be easily mistaken for the other. 
In the calf the joints are much larger than in the dog ; and 
the carcase of the dog always exhales a distinctively canine 
odour. 

The flesh of very young animals has a laxative effect on 
human beings. It should not be allowed into the market. 
Few calves, however, come into the abattoir for slaughter 
before the age of five weeks. The flesh of calves soon becomes 
sour. 

The fat of bovine animals varies in colour from white to 
straw colour and yellow. It is whiter in colour usually in 
young bulls, and in animals fed on corn or grass, than in 
bullocks or cows, or in animals fed on rich cakes, in which it 
is sometimes of a tolerably deep yellow, as it is in certain 
breeds of cattle, e.g. the Jerseys and Guernseys, In cooking, 
a loss of from 20 to 30 per cent, takes place in the case of 
yellow fat, consequently (according to Capt. Stacpole) officers 
charged with the duty of purchasing fresh meat for the army 
are directed to avoid it when the flesh is markedly yellow. 
It should be firm, have a suety taste, and a slightly greasy 
feel. 

The connective tissue should glisten on exposure, and be 
tolerably moist, but there should be no draining of water from 
its meshes. It is most abundant in parts where the skin 
is loosely attached, e.g. the flanks, under the shoulder, the 
abdomen, and at the breast or brisket. 

The muscular tissue of the horse is much darker in colour 
than is that of the ox. It is coarser in texture, and its 
odour is less pleasant. The flesh of the ass and mule is more 
finely grained than that of the horse. The fat is always of 
a yellowish colour, softer than is that of the ox, and it 
has a rather unpleasant, sickly taste. This want of consistence 
is due probably to the fact that it contains a large propor- 
tion of olein. After the lapse of a few days— the length of 
time depending upon the amount of watery vapour in the 



2 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

atmosphere and the condition of the animal when slaughtered 
—horse flesh contracts a peculiar sickly odour, and it sticks to 
the fingers. 

In those cases where the bones have been removed, the 
hints above given must be relied upon ; but when the operation 
of " boning " has not been performed, there should be little difh- 
culty in distinguishing between a joint cut from the carcase 
of an ox and one from that of the horse. The bones of the 
horse are, relatively, much larger than are those of the ox. 
They contain more fatty matter, which is of a semi-fluid con- 
sistence. The processes usually situated at the extremities 
(the epiphyses and the apophyses) are better developed and 
more numerous, and those bones which are indirectly con- 
nected with the skeleton, the floating bones, as the cap of the 
stifle (patella), are much more pronounced in form and size. 
The ulna (or elbow bone) of the ox is much larger than is that 
of the horse— it articulates, in fact, with one of the bones of the 
knee (the cuneiform) ; but the corresponding bones of the hind 
leg (the fibuLs), as also the splint bones of both fore and hind 
legs, are usually absent in the ox, or, if present, are rudimentary. 

The flesh of the horse contains a larger amount of glycogen 
than that of other animals, and the presence of this substance 
is a means of identifying horse flesh. Hasterhk and Niebel 
have described a method of estimating the amount of glycogen 
in flesh. Trotter, employing the method followed by Niebel, 
found that the amount of glycogen present in the flesh of oxen 
and sheep was nil. In that of the pig it varied from to • 26 
per cent. In various samples of horse flesh the amount of 
glycogen was from -9 to 1-85 per cent. The most recently 
published method for the estimation of glycogen is that of 
Pfliiger, which is as follows:— The tissue is extracted with an 
alkaline solution containing about 3 per cent. KHO. To this 
10 grms. of KI per 100 cc. are added. This keeps the pro- 
teids in solution when the glycogen is precipitated by the 
addition of ^ to 2 vols, of 96 per cent, alcohol. After precipi- 
tation the mixture is filtered, and the glycogen is retained 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 29 

by the filter paper, tlie weight of whicli is known. The pre- 
cipitate is washed with the following solution : KHO — 3 
grms., KI — 10 grms., Water — 100 cc. Free KHO to 
between • 4 and 2 per cent, (over and above that combined with 
the proteid) must be present. The precipitate (glycogen) 
is next washed with 50 per cent, alcohol, then with pure 
alcohol. Finally, the paper with its contents is dried in 
an oveja until the weight is constant. The difference 
between the original dry weight of the filter paper 
and that of the dried paper and precipitate represents 
glycogen. 

A less exact but simpler test for glycogen in flesh is that 
introduced by Brautigam and Edelmann, which has been 
further simplified by Courtoy and Coremans. 

Fifty grammes of minced flesh are boiled in 200 grammes 
of water for from fifteen to thirty minutes. After cooling, the 
broth is filtered. A portion of this fluid is put into a test-tube, 
and a few drops of the following solution are slowly added : 
iodine, 2 parts ; iodide of potassium, 4 parts ; water, 100 parts. 
The tube should be held ujd to the light when the first drops 
are added, and a faint tinge of violet will be seen in the broth, 
if glycogen be present. 

Courtoy and Coremans say that if the broth does not become 
of a distinct brown colour the flesh under examination is not 
horse flesh. The brown colour should disappear when the 
broth is heated to 80° C, and reappear on cooling. 

When the colour taken is a deep violet, starch is present. 
In such a case they advise the addition of twice its volume of 
acetic acid to the broth before testing. They also say that 
glycogen is absent from the masseter muscles of the horse. 

The organs of the horse most largely substituted for the 
edible organs of the ox are \he tongue, the heart, and the liver. 

The tongue of the horse is broad at its free extremity, while 
that of the ox is pointed, and in the latter its upper surface is 
rough and bristly, owing to the large filiform papillae. The cir- 
cumvallate papillae are more numerous in the tongue of the ox 



30 MEAT INSPECTION 

than ill that of the horse. In that of the former animal they 
are arranged in two rows. If, as frequently happens, the bone 
of the tongue (the 02, hyoides) has been left in situ, it will be 
found that while in the ox it is composed of nine segments 
or parts, there are only five in the horse ; that the body of the 
bone is of an angular shape in the ox, and its spur process is 
short and conical. The epiglottis (a cartilage frequently left 
on the tongue) is, in the horse, thinner and more pointed than 
in the ox. 

The heart of the ox is more pointed (conical) than that 
of the horse, and the fat in the furrows on the external sur- 
face is usually in greater quantity, whiter in colour, and 
firmer in texture ; moreover, at the base of the former 
there exists a bone (the os cordis) which is not found in 
the latter. 

The livers of the ox and sheep.— They are made up of a 
continuous mass or lobe, with one small lobe at the upper and 
posterior part, while in the horse there are three distinct lobes 
— the right, left, and middle— with a supernumerary lobe. In 
the former animals a gall bladder is attached to the posterior 
surface ; in the horse it is wanting. The liver of the pig 
has five lobes, and the lobules are distinctly mapped out on 
its surface, while in the dog this organ is made up of two 
lobules— right and left. 

The kidneys of the ox and the calf are lobulated— i.e. 
separated into lobes or divisions— and elongated ; those of 
the dog, the pig, and the sheep are simple and oblong in shape. 
While the left kidney of the horse is oblong, the right is heart- 
shaped. The kidney of the pig is flatter on its surfaces than 
is that of any other animal. 

The flesh of the sheep is of a less florid hue and finer in the 
grain than is that of the ox, but in the old ram it is often of a 
tolerably pronounced colour, and very tough. Even between 
the flesh of the old ewe or wether and that of the young animal 
there is a marked contrast in this respect. The fat is always 
very firm (suety) and white in colour, and both flesh and fat 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 31 

exhale a more distinctive odour than that given off from the 
carcase of the ox. The fat, too, is more evenly distributed 
over the back and sides of the carcase, and the muscular tissue 
is seldom found to be marbled with fat, except in the longissimus 
dor si. 

Occasionally the flesh of the sheep is tainted with the flavour 
of wool. This, it has been variously explained, is due to the 
skin being left on the back of the carcase for some time aftei- 
death ; to the carcase being enveloped in the skin ; and to 
the intestines and stomach being allowed to remain for too 
long a time in the abdomen. 

The flesh of the goat is, in adult animals, much darker in 
colour than is that of the sheep, and the fat is less abundant ; but 
although the fat on the body is small in quantity, there may be 
equally as much fat on the loins in the former as in the latter. 
When newly dressed, and when subjected to the action of 
heat, the flesh of the goat gives off a distinct " goaty " odour ; 
it has also a " goaty " flavour. The marbled appearance is not 
seen in the flesh of goats. 

The substitution of the flesh of the goat for that of the sheep, 
or the kid for that of the lamb, is a matter of much less 
importance than are some of the substitutions carried out as 
between other animals. 

The flesh of the pig is, in young animals, pale in colour, 
and even in adults it is of a comparatively lighter hue than 
that of either the ox or the sheep. It is also less firm to the 
touch ; the fat is more unctuous to the feel. It forms a 
deep smooth layer all round the kidneys and under the skin 
of the back and sides— the latter constituting the " panniculus 
adiposus " of the comparative anatomist. A slight odour is 
always detectable, and this becomes very pronounced in old 
hoars, as does also the " brawny taste." Both the odour and 
taste are retained— the former, in fact, is increased — on cooking. 
The flesh of the pig is not substituted for that of other animals ; 
but inasmuch as large boars are frequently skinned, and the 
flesh is of a deep red colour, the carcase, on a superficial view, 



32 MEAT INSPECTION 

is not at all uiilike tliat of an old ram. The anatomical differ- 
ences, however, are very marked. 

It is impossible to cut through the skin of an old Ijoar, so 
hard and fibrous does it become. 



METHODS OF PREPARING TISSUES FOR MICROSCOPICAL 
EXAMINATION 

It is not intended in this section to deal widely with the 
histological methods of examination. The scojDe of the volume 
will hardly admit of it, and there are many excellent text- 
books which treat of the subject. There is no doubt that the' 
intending Meat Inspector ought to serve an apprenticeship in 
the laboratory in order to qualify himself for his future work ; 
but as there are many who have not had the oppoi'tunity 
of doing this, the Editor ventures to hope that the few simpler 
methods described in this section mil not be considered 
superfluous. 

Tissues which are to be examined microscopically may be 
cut into thin sections on the freezing microtome in the fi-esh 
state, or after they have been fixed and hardened. Thinner and 
better preparations can often be obtained by the embedding 
method ; but a good deal of practice is necessary before one 
learns to execute the different manipulations satisfactorily. 
Eor the ordinary purposes of diagnosis, the freezing method 
will be found to meet most of the i-equirements of the Meat 
Inspector. 

The Freezing Method 

As already said, a tissue may be cut in the fresh state oi' 
after it has been hardened. 

Method of dealing with fresh tissues. — As a general rule, 
the softer tissues cannot be cut in the fresh state with very 
satisfactory results. 

The very cellular parts usually fall out of the section, and 
the latter is apt to split up into shreds when the cover-glass is 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 33 

applied. Moreover, it is impossible to fi-ee fresli tissue sections 
from air-bubbles, or to dehydrate tliem with good i-esults, when 
they require to be mounted in balsam. Nevertheless, one can 
often by the fresh method obtain preparations which are quite 
good enough for purposes of diagnosis. It is better not to 
attempt to cut large sections of fresh tissue, as these are very 
difficult to manipulate. Half an inch square will be found a 
convenient size for the block of tissue which is to be cut. The 
block is placed on the plate of the microtome, which has pre- 
viously been smeared with a thick layer of gum solution.-^ 
The object of the gum is to firmly fix the block on the plate 
after freezing, but it should not be put all over the tissue, as in 
the case of hardened specimens, for fresh sections smeared 
with gum are difficult to separate fi'om each other without 
tearing. 

The tissue is next frozen by the ether spray to the I'equired 
hardness. It is afterwards cut into thin sections with a razoi" 
on a tripod, or with one of the plane knives suppHed with the 
microtome. 

It is advisable to wet the upper surface of the knife before 
commencing to cut, as the sections then tend to stick to it. 
When a number have accumulated on the sui-face of the blade, 
they should be gently wiped off with the finger into a basin of 
clean water. The best sections are then picked out with a 
mounting needle, placed in another basin of water, from which 
they are mounted on a sHde. It is needless to say that all the 
manipulations should be performed in the gentlest manner 
possible, to avoid tearing the sections. 

A very useful method of deahng with soft tissues in the fresh 
state is to harden them for one hour in a ten per cent, solution 
of formalin before cutting. The tissue should be cut into small 
blocks of the size above described before being immersed in the 
hardening solution. Firm sections can be obtained from fresh 
brain tissue that has been treated in this way. Lung tissue 
which is not airless will float on the surface of the fluid ; and in 
^ The B.P. Mucilage suits very well. 
3 



34 MEAT INSPECTION 

order to iiisui'e the peneti-ation of the latter, the blocks must 
be made to sink. 

If only a few sections are required, it saves time, and it is 
convenient, to begin cutting before the block has been frozen 
to the top. AVhen the lower part is quite ligid, one shaves oft" 
the still Haccid top portion until one comes to a part that is 
sufficiently hard to be cut in thin sections. Failure from over- 
freezing, a common fault of the novice, is avoided by adopting 
this plan. The necessary degree of hardness is soon learned by 
practice. When a tissue on the microtome chips under the 
knife, it is generally due to over-freezing. If it cuts with a 
rough surface or tears, it has not been sufficiently frozen. 

Teasing or splitting up into fine shreds with needles is a 
quick and convenient method of obtaining preparations of 
tissue like muscle. It is also sometimes useful in sejoarating 
jDarasites from the tissues in which they are embedded. 

The tissue to be teased should be placed in a few drops of 
gl3^cerine or water on an ordinary slide, and there manipulated. 
The shreds may be further improved for microscopical examina- 
tion by compressing them under a cover-glass with or without 
previous staining. Tissues like the above may also be examined 
after they have been squeezed between two oi-dinaiy glass 
slides, 01' between two glass plates made for the purpose. An 
apparatus of the latter description, such as is used in the Berlin 
abattoir for examining the muscles of pigs for trichinae, will 
be found useful. The pressure is obtained by means of two 
screws placed one at each end of the plates, and the uppei' slab 
is ruled into comijartments, which are numbered in such a 
way that the figures will appear normal when looked at through 
the microscope. 

Fixing and hardening.— Tissues that have been properly 
fixed give a much truer pictui-e when examined undei" the 
microscope. The object is to fix the cells by putting them in 
contact with some agent that will coagulate their albumin 
before it has undergone jjost-mortem changes. It is almost 
needless to say that tissues to be properly fixed must be placed 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 35. 

in contact with tlie agent before physiological death has taken 
IDlace. The sooner the tissue is fixed after the death of the 
animal the better. 

Some of the preparations in common use, such as corrosive 
sublimate in saturated solution, and formalin, all fix in a com- 
paratively short time. They are to be recommended for the 
more delicate work. Miiller's fluid is a useful hardening 
agent, especially for brain tissue. Methylated spirit, a useful 
and inexpensive agent for hardening tissues, is not sufficiently 
fixative for the finer histological work. It is very suitable, 
however, for tissues that do not require to be examined by 
the more delicate methods, and will in most cases fulfil the 
requirements of the Meat Inspector. Commercial formalin 
diluted to one fourth, i.e. 10 per cent, formalin, is the strength 
generally used of this agent. 

The tissues to be hardened should be cut into as small pieces 
as one can conveniently work with, and this should be clone 
with a sharp knife or razor. The aim is, of course, to avoid 
tearing the tissues and to get the fluid to penetrate the mass 
as quickly as possible. If corrosive sublimate or formalin be 
used for fixing, the tissues should be changed into alcohol 
after twenty-four hours, and the alcohol itself should be changed 
every day for at least three days. Ordinary tissues require 
to remain in Miiller's fluid for a fortnight or three weeks, and 
they should have about ten times their bulk of fluid. It is 
often necessary, however, to leave brain and spinal cord in the 
fluid for a much longer time. In all cases it should be changed 
frequently during the first week. Tissues hardened in Miiller, 
however, do not stain well with picro-carmine. When spirit 
is used as the hardening reagent, it is generally sufficient to 
change it every day for the first three days. On the fourth 
day the tissues will be ready ; but most tissues can remain in 
spirit indefinitely without undergoing deterioration. It is 
advisable to dilute the spirit with one-third of its volume of 
water, if the tissue is very fibrous ; this prevents overharden- 
ing. 



3 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

Calcified tissues of course require to be decalcified before 
cutting. They are usually hardened at the same time. 

Preparation of hardened tissues for cutting into sections.— 
If the tissue is to be cut on the freezing microtome, a piece 
of convenient size is taken from the hardening fluid and washed 
in running water for an hour or more. The object is to wash 
out as much of the hardening reagent as possible. After 
washing, the j^iece is placed in a gum and syrup freezing mixture 
for at least twenty-four hours. Hardened tissues, however, 
may be left in gum indefinitely, so long as the mixture remains 
free from moulds. The reason for using the gum mixture is 
that it does not freeze into crystals, which would tear the 
tissues. When the tissue is properly impregnated, it is put 
on the plate of the microtome, surrounded by mucilage, and 
frozen. One may begin to cut sections when the surrounding 
mass of mucilage is frozen to the top. The sections cut are 
wiped off into a basin of clean water. If the sections are not 
over delicate, they may be put into spirit after a short soaking 
in water, and then transferred to another basin. This treat- 
ment causes the sections to spread out quickly, and gets rid 
of air-bubbles, but it may ruin delicate sections. The latter, 
if left in water for a longer time, will part with most of their 
air-bubbles and gum in the water. 

Mounting.— The sections are taken singly and floated on to 
a glass slide, on which they are spread out with care. They 
may be stained on the slide or before mounting. When ready 
to receive the cover-glass, a few drojjs of a mounting solution, 
Farr ant's medium— or Canada balsam, according to the pre- 
vious treatment of the section— are dropped on, and the cover- 
glass is applied. Care must be taken to avoid getting air- 
bubbles between the section and the cover-glass. Sections 
stained on the slide with picro-carmine or alum-carmine ai'e 
mounted in Farrant after the superfluous stain has been 
drained oS. 

When hsematoxylin or the bacterial stains are to be em- 
ployed, the sections are placed in a watch-glass containing the 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 37. 

dye, and tliey must be dehydrated before mounting in balsam. 
The sections, after they come out of the stain, are washed in 
water or in some decolorising mixture, until they take the 
required tint. They are then transferred to spirit for about 
three minutes ; from spirit they are placed in absolute alcohol 
for about the same time, or until thoroughly dehydrated. 
When this is accomplished they are transferred to some clarify- 
ing neagent, such as clove oil or xylol, out of which they are 
taken by means of a copper lifter, and spread out on a clean 
dry slide. They should be allowed to drain for a short time 
before the balsam is put on. 

Embedding method. — When one has to examine very 
dehcate tissues or those containing softened centres, it is 
advisable to supply them with a supporting framework of 
celloidin or paraffin before cutting. Before embedding, the 
block of tissue should be thoroughly dehydrated in absolute 
alcohol. When it has i^reviously been preserved in spirit, 
twenty-four hours will generally be found sufficient, if the 
alcohol be changed once or twice. For purposes of diagnosis, 
however, it can be dehydrated in a much shorter time— one 
hour— by frequently changing the alcohol, or by using a Soxlet 
tube. The larger the block of tissue, the longer will it take 
the embedding mass to permeate. 

Celloidin Tnethod. — Beiore going into celloidin, the tissue 
should be thoroughly soaked in a mixture of alcohol and ether. 
From this it is placed in a 4 per cent, solution of celloidin in 
equal parts of alcohol and ether. It is left in this for about a 
week, and then transferred to a 10 per cent, solution of the 
same-. When the tissue is thoroughly permeated— the time 
required varies— it is taken out with forceps and waved in air 
for a few minutes until a membrane forms on the outside. It 
is then hardened in 80 per cent, alcohol for a few hours, after 
which it may be cut on a freezing or other microtome. If the 
freezing microtome be used, the block is first soaked in water, 
wiped and fixed on the plate by a thin layer of mucilage. The 
razor should be wetted with 80 per cent, alcohol. Purposely, 



3 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

nothing has been said of staining in bulk, as the Editor does 
not think it advisable to multiply the methods here detailed. 
He has already expressed the opinion that an intending Meat 
Inspector should serve a short apprenticeship in the laboratory. 

Paraffin method. —When the dehydrated tissues are to be 
embedded in paraffin, the Editor has found the cedar-wood oil 
method to give the best results. Erom the alcohol, the blocks 
of tissue are placed in a bath containing commercial cedar-wood 
oil, which is kept on the top of the paraffin bath for several hours; 
one hour is sufficient for the quick method to be afterwards 
described. They are then transferred to a bath of paraffin 
whose melting-point is 45° C. They are kept in this for about 
two hours, during which time the paraffin is changed at least 
twice. Next they are placed in a bath of paraffin whose melting- 
point is about 50° 0., and they may remain in this for from 
two to twelve hours. Theyshould remain in the hard paraffin 
as short a time as is consistent with thorough penetration. 
If the tissue be left in too long it becomes cooked and hard. 
When sufficiently permeated, the blocks of tissue are taken 
out carefully with forceps, and placed in a metal or paper mould 
containing melted paraffin of the same hardness. When the 
surface of the paraffin has solidified sufficiently, the mass is 
rapidly cooled by placing the mould in cold water. The rapid 
cooling prevents the paraffin from crystallising. When cold, 
the paraffin can be shaken out of the mould, after it has been 
warmed around the sides. 

The paraffin block is then planed smooth at its edges with 
a knife, and fixed on the carrier of the paraffin microtome by 
heat. It is advisable • before cutting to dip the block in soft 
paraffin which has been melted. This facilitates the formation 
of ribbons. Mr. Patterson of the K. 0. P. Laboratory, Edinburgh, 
tells me that he often hardens, embeds, and cuts all in one day 
the specimens sent for diagnosis. They go for one hour into 
spirit, one hour into absolute alcohol, and for the same time into 
cedar-wood oil. They are then put for two hours into soft 
paraffin, which is twice changed, and from this are transferred 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 39 

to hard paraffin for an hour before being placed in the 
mould. 

The paraffin baths are kept in ovens heated by water main- 
tained at a temperature slightly above the melting-point. Each 
oven should be fitted with a thermo-regulator. 

Manipulation of paraffin sections. — One or several sections 
in ribbons are laid out in a basin of water heated nearly to that 
of ther melting-point of the paraffin. In this the sections are 
spread out, and they can easily be floated on to the slide. It is 
advisable to coat the slides with a very thin layer of albumin, 
as it makes the sections stick faster. A stock of albuminised 
slides can be kept ready. When the sections are mounted, they 
are dried in a stove over night. For the quick method they 
can be di'ied over the flame ; but this is not advisable, unless 
time is a great consideration. When dried, the slides are 
washed in turpentine to take out the paraffin, the turpentine 
is washed out with absolute alcohol, and this again with spirit. 
From the spirit they may be transferred into water, or they 
may be stained straight away. If corrosive sublimate has been 
used for fixing, it should be dissolved out of the tissue before 
staining. To do this the slides ai-e washed for about five minutes 
in Gram's solution of iodine, and then in spirit, until the iodine 
is removed. After staining, and decolorising if necessary, 
the sections are thoroughly dehydrated in spirit and absolute 
alcohol. They are then clarified in turpentine, and mounted 
in balsam. 

Cover-glass preparations.— This method of examination 
is very useful when dealing with fluids. A i^latinum wire, 
which has been looped at one end and fixed in a metal carrier 
by the other, is sterilised in the flame. When cool, it is dipped 
in the fluid to be examined, and the fluid is then rubbed over 
a cover-glass. The material may be further spread out by 
placing another glass on the top, pressing the two together, 
then sliding them apart. The latter procedure is necessary 
with thick liquids. It is sometimes possible to make a good 
film by simply rubbing the glass over the surface of the tissue. 



40 MEAT INSPECTION 

The glasses are left film side upwards under a bell-jar until dry, 
or tlie drying may loe hastened by holding the glass above a 
small Bunsen flame. When dry, the cover is taken with a pair 
of forcejDS, held with the film side upwards, and 23assed three 
times through the flame to coagulate the albumin and fix it 
on the glass. After this it may be stained, decolorised, de- 
hydrated over the flame, and mounted in balsam. Care must 
be taken not to scorch the film. Instead of fixing by heat, 
the films may be placed in some fixative solution or vapour. 

In examining hard nodules, some tubercles for example, 
it is better to mince the tissue in water on a glass-slide and make 
the film from the emulsion. 

The following stains and preparations will be found to meet 
most of the demands of the Meat Inspector : — 

Decalcifying fluid.— Tal\:e a 10 per cent, aqueous solution 
of nitric acid and saturate it with picric acid. The time neces- 
sary for decalcification varies considerably. The fluid should 
be freely supplied and frequently changed. 

Muller's fluid. — Bichromate of potash 2 parts, sulphate 
of soda 1 part, water 100 parts. The bicromate should be 
pulverised, and the water should be heated. 

Gum-freezing mixture (Cole). — (1) Dissolve 1 lb. of loaf- 
sugar in 1 jDint of boiling water ; (2) dissolve 4 oz. of gum acacia 
in 6 oz. of water. For soaking the tissues before cutting, take 
three parts of No. 1 and five parts of No. 2. This mixture 
can be kept in stock by adding 5 grs. of carbolic acid for each 
ounce. For the more delicate tissues, take four parts of No. 1 
and five of No. 2. 

Picro-lithium-carmine.— Dissolve 1-25 grms. of carmine in 
50 c.c. of a saturated watery solution of lithium carbonate; 
filter, and add slowly 100 c.c. of a saturated watery solution of 
picric acid. The quantities must be measured exactly. For 
purposes of diagnosis this is a very useful method of staining 
the tissues. The specimen is stained on the slide for about 
three minutes, the surplus stain is run ofi", and Farrant's 
medium is used for mounting the cover-glass. 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 41 

Borax carmine (Gi-enaoher).— Take of carmine 1 grm., 
borax 2 grms., distilled water 200 c.c. Specimens stained 
Idv borax carmine can be dehydrated and mounted in balsam. 

Erliclh's acid hceinatoxylin. — Take of lisematoxylin 2 
grms., water, absolute' alcohol, and glycerine 100 c.c. each, 
glacial acetic acid 10 c.c. ; dissolve the htematoxylin by rubbing 
it up in a mortar wath the water, pour into a bottle, add the 
glycerine and alcohol, and then saturate with alum. The 
mixture is exposed to light, and occasionally to air, until it 
becomes dark red in colour, when it is ready for use. Fine 
histological preparations can be obtained with this h8ematox}'lin, 
and it does not overstain. Sections are left in the stain for not 
less than three minutes. They are then washed in alkalinised 
water until they take a blue colour. Before dehydi'ating, the}' 
may be contrast stained, with eosin or Congo red. To stain 
with eosin, the sections are put for about two minutes in | per 
cent, solution, or the clove oil may be tinged with a solution 
in absolute alcohol if they have been cut on the freezijig micro- 
tome. Congo red is used in solution of 1 to 1000. It must not 
be left on for much more than two minutes. 

Ziehl - Neelsen's carhol - fuchsin. — Dissolve 1 grm. of 
fuchsin (basic) in 100 c.c. of a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic 
acid in water, and add 10 c.c. of absolute alcohol. 

Like the other bacterial stains, this should be filtered before 
use. Its action is hastened by warming, but care must be taken 
not to put sections into the stain, if it be hot enough to shrivel 
them. Preparations stained for the tubercle bacillus are de- 
colorised in a 20 per cent, aqueous solution of strong acid (sul- 
phuric). Diluted to one-third with water, it is a suitable stain 
for cover-glass preparations of some of the other bacteria. The 
latter should be stained for three minutes, and then decolorised 
in a basin of water with a few drops of acetic acid added. To 
avoid a precipitate, it is advisable to dip the covers in alcohol 
before applying the stain. Tubercle preparations are taken 
back and foi'ward from the acid to water until they show a 
very pale pink tint. The tissue cells can be contrast stained 



42 



MEAT INSPECTION 




Fig, 1, — Cathcart freezincf microtome. 





Fig. 2. — Reagent bottles fitted 
with pipettes. 



Fig. 3. — Forceps 
for holding 
cover-glasses. 



Fig. 4. — a and h, 
Staining dish, and 
cover for same. 



METHOD OF INSPECTION 43 

by dipping for two or three minutes in one of the methyl-bkie 
preparations, but methyl-bkie, if left on too long, ma}' wash 
out the fuchsin from the bacteria. 

Plant's method.— This can be used for tubercle, but it is 
better suited for the actinomyces clubs. 

The stain is carbol-fuchsin. The decolorising fluid is spirit 
saturated with picric acid. The sections go from the decolor- 
ising liukl into clean spirit. 

Kiihnes carhol-hlue. —Dissolve 1-5 grms. of methylene- blue 
in 100 c.c. of 5 per cent, aqueous solution of carbolic acid, and 
add 10 c.c. of absolute alcohol. 

Loffler's blue.— Take of a saturated alcoholic solution of 
methylene-blue three parts, and add one part of 1 to 10,000 
aqueous solution of caustic potash. 

Garhol-thionine-hlue (Nicolle).— Take of a saturated solu- 
tion of thionine-blue in 50 per cent, alcohol, 10 c.c, and add 
100 c.c. of 1 per cent, solution of carbolic acid in water. 

Sections or cover-glasses stained by the blue pi'eparations 
should be decolorised in water, which may be acidulated or not. 
If it be found that alcohol removes too much of the stain, the 
specimen can be dried on the slide in the stove and clarified 
in xylol or turpentine before mounting. 

Gram's stain.— Take of aniline watei' (water saturated 
with aniline oil and filtered) 10 c.c, absolute alcohol 1 c.c, satur- 
ated solution of gentian-violet in alcohol 1 c.c. This stain 
should not be made up in large quantities, as it does not keep. 
Sections and cover-glasses are left in the stain for five minutes. 
They are then transferred to the following solution, until they 
become black— say three minutes. 

Iodine solution.— Take of iodine 1 part, iodide of potassium 
2 parts, water 300 parts. The superfluous colouring matter is 
Avashed out afterwards with spirit and absolute alcohol. 



GENEKAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 

In this section have been placed those processes which are known 
in pathology as degeneration and infiltration. The neoplasms 
will also be dealt with here, as they are not of sufficient interest 
to the Meat Inspector to merit a special section. 

INFILTRATIONS 

The materials which may infiltrate a tissue are : fat, cal- 
cai'eous particles, and several pigmented substances derived 
from the blood or from an extraneous source. 

Fatty Infiltration 

With the exception of the liver, fatty infiltration is seldom 
seen in the organs, but the various storehouses for fat, such 
as the mesentery, become enormously enlarged in fat stock. 
A fatty liver is enlarged. On section, its tissue is less firm than 
that of a normal organ, and it is yellow in colour. To the 
fingers it feels greasy. According to the Editor's experience, 
fatty infiltration of the liver in cattle is mostly associated with 
cirrhosis caused by flukes. In this case the organ is very 
firm externally, but its substance is easily broken down. The 
microscope shows that the liver cells contain refractile oil 
droplets. They are distended, and the nucleus is often dis- 
placed, but it takes up the nuclear stains. 

Inspection.— There is no reason why organs which are in- 
filtrated by fat should be withdrawn from the market, unless 
cirrhotic changes be present as well. 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITLONS 45 

Calcification 

Infiltration by calcareous material usually occurs at the seat 
of degenerated tissue, such as a tubercle. Many of the seats 
will be mentioned in connection with the various diseases. 
Cattle and sheep from the Argentine Eepublic sometimes show 
calcareous infiltration of the lungs. The Editor has received a 
specimen- of this kind from the late Mr. Duguid, who obtained 
it from an ox slaughtered at Deptford. The aft'ected portions 
resembled pieces of calcified sponge. Calcified tissue is very 
hard ; it grates under the knife when cut, and stony particles 
of a grey or black colo^ir are seen on the surface of section. 

Inspection.— It is almost unnecessary to say that calcified 
tissues should be seized, unless the number of particles is trivial. 

Infilteation by Pigment 

Hccmatoidin.—ILddina.toidm is a derivative of blood pigment. 
It occurs at the seat of injuries which have been followed by 
extravasation of blood. It is one of the substances which gives 
rise to the discoloration of tissue which follows upon a bruise. 

Lutein. —This is yellow pigment which is found in the corpora 
lutea of the ovary. Sometimes the ovaries of cows are quite 
fibrous, and their tissue is universally infiltrated by lutein. 

Me^amn.— Melanin is a brownish black pigment, which 
occurs in granules. It is a normal constituent of the body, 
but it sometimes accumulates in pathological growths, such 
as neoplasms — melanomata, melanotic sarcomata. Melanotic 
fibromata are by no means rare in oxen. In these also, but 
more especially in young calves, melanotic patches may be found 
under the skin, on the membranes, and in the organs, such as 
the spleen, the liver, and the lungs. The patches vary from 
mere specks to the dimensions of a half-crown piece or larger. 
This condition is sometimes spoken of as "melanosis." The 
general condition of the animal may be quite good. Melanin 
is soluble in hot liq. potassa?. 



46 MEAT INSPECTION 

^i/^t!.— Jaundice is the name given to pigmentation of the 
tissues by bile. It arises in the course of catarrhal affections 
of the bile ducts, or of the duodenum when the orifice of the 
main duct becomes obstructed. The bile is absorbed into the 
circulation, and it pigments the tissues. The colouring matter 
of the bile in herbivorous animals is biliverdin, which is very 
nearly related to the bilirubin of the carnivora. 

The pigmentation is well seen in the adipose tissues and 
serous membranes, but its intensity varies greatly. All the 
tissues, with exception of the muscles, may be of a deep 
yellow colour, or only a faint tinge may be discerned in those 
which normally approach the white. A yellow colour of the fat 
is not always attributable to bile ; it may have been due to the 
feeding. In old cows the fat is often very yellow in colour, the 
tint being due to a lipo-chrome. In bad cases of jaundice the 
muscles are of a dark brown colour. If any doubt exists as to 
the nature of the pigments, Gmelin's or Pettenkofer's tests 
may be applied. 

Post-mortem discoloration. — When an animal has been dead 
some time before the viscera have been removed, local patches 
of discoloration are often present. These are due to stain- 
ing with bile which has oozed through the gall bladder, and 
to decomposition of the blood owing to gases set free from 
the fermenting mass of ingesta in the intestines. This 
takes place more rapidly, of course, in hot weather than in 
cold. 

The changes are seen in the abdominal region. Bile stains 
the tissues a greenish yellow colour, and the decomposition 
changes render them green or even black. The latter colour is 
due to the formation of sulphide of iron by the action of HgS on 
the iron of the blood. The sjDleen, owing to the amount of iron 
it contains, frequently becomes black, although the other organs 
are almost unchanged. In sheep one of the first parts to show 
the green colour is the kidney fat. 

>Si ooi.— Extraneous pigments in the form of soot or carbon 
may be found in the lungs and the adjoining lymphatic glands. 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 47 

The Editor has seen the lungs of a cow almost black with 
carbon. The animal had wandered into a bed of soot deposited 
in a field. 

/■n/Specf^o?^.— Tissues containing an abnormal pigment must 
be looked upon as unmarketable. It will seldom be necessary to 
seize the whole carcase, however, except in some cases of jaundice. 
In severe cases of jaundice the aspect of the flesh is very repulsive. 
Moreover, it is often flabby, and its flavour is altered. Total 
seizure should be applied to carcases of the latter description. 
Bile, however, is not a poison, and one would not be justified in 
seizing a carcase on account of a faint yellow tinge in the 
membranes. 

The exact degree of pigmentation which calls for seizure 
must be left to the judgment of the inspector, for it cannot be 
defined. 

DEGENERATION 

One understands by degeneration that the cell albumin is 
converted into some other substance, such as fat. 

Cloudy Swelling 

This is a condition in which albuminous granules appear 
in the cells or fibres of an organ. The changes in a cloudy 
organ are not very apparent to the naked eye, but the 
microscope shows that the cells are swollen, and their nuclei 
are somewhat obscured by the presence of numerous dark 
granules having a peppery appearance. 

Inspection.— Cloudy swelling is a symptom of certain 
systemic troubles, such as arsenical poisoning or bacterial 
aft'ections, which might lead to the whole carcase being con- 
demned. If the carcase is fit to pass, however, it is unlikely 
that a cloudy condition in an organ would ever be noticed, 
unless one was looking specially for signs of poisoning {see 
Alterations due to Drugs). 



48 MEAT INSPECTION 

Fatty Degeneeation 

In fatty degeneration the cell albumin is converted into oil. 
This change is met with in liver cells, renal epithelium, and 
muscle fibre. 

An organ in which fatty degeneration is the only change, is 
usually smaller and softer than normal. Its colour is yellow- 
reddish yellow in the case of the heart and liver— and its 
consistence may be quite pulpy. . 

With the microscope one sees that some of the cells have 
disappeared. Many of the remaining ones contain small 
oil droplets, and the nuclei are lost in some cases. The dis- 
appearance of the nuclei by conversion into oil enables one to 
distinguish this condition from fatty infiltration. The oil 
droplets can be stained black with perosmic acid, • 5 per cent. 

In cattle and sheep, fatty degeneration is most frequently 
found in the liver as a complication of cirrhosis. In this case 
the organ is enlarged. 

/Tispeciion.- Organs in a state of fatty degeneration should 
be regarded as unmarketable. Their appearance is often repul- 
sive, and the change may have been due to some serious trouble, 
such as poisoning by arsenic or phosphorus. Moreover, when 
one buys liver, one expects that it will contain no more than 
the physiological amount of fat. 

Amyloid Disease 

This is a condition in which the organs become invaded by a 
waxy-looking material. The spleen, the liver, and the kidney 
are the commonest seats of the change; but it is almost unknown 
in animals of the abattoir. It is sometimes met with, however, 
in the livers of tuberculous pheasants. An amyloid organ is 
enlarged, usually firmer than normaV and presents a pale, 
smooth, and wax-like surface on section. In the spleen, how- 
ever, the Malpighian bodies may project (Sago spleen). 

^ The amyloid liver of the horse is sometimes pulp3\ 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 49 

The microscope shows the material to be present in the 
capillary walls, the middle coat of small vessels, and the con- 
nective tissues. The cells do not contain it, but they may be 
fatty. 

/nspecf 1071. — Amyloid organs should be seized. 



Neceosis 

Necrosis is physiological death of a tissue, which occurs 
locally. The condition will be again referred to (see Bacterial 
Necrosis). The dead tissue is white in colour, and is usually 
separated from the healthy parts by a more or less abrupt line. 
Its albumin has passed from the fluid to the solid state ; it is 
coagulated and firmer than normal. The microscopic appear- 
ances are described in the chapter on Bacterial Necrosis. 

Dead tissue which is in communication with the external air 
is apt to putrefy. The dead part softens under the action of 
microbes. It becomes livid in colour, and gives off a stinking 
odour (moist gangrene). 

/Mspec^ioTi. — Necrotic tissue should not be allowed into the 
market. If moist gangrene has set in, the flesh ma)' be fevered. 
In this case the carcase will be unmarketable. If the effects 
of putrefaction are purely local, the diseased area should be 
removed, with a wide margin, before the rest of the carcase 
is passed. Particular attention should be given to the lymphatic 
glands in the neighbourhood of the slough. 



NEOPLASMS 

It is not necessary to describe all the neoplasms in detail. 
They are new growths of what might be called pathological tissue, 
and as such are unfit for human food. The benign neoplasms, 
although they may be multiple, do not reproduce themselves in 
remote organs. Those most frequently met with in the abattoir 
are the fibrous tumour and its varieties— mvxom a and melan- 



50 



MEAT INSPECTION 



oma, lipoma, and, more rarely, the myoma. The fibromata 
are found in connection with the skin, and not infrequently 
in the uterus. In the latter situation thev mav reach an 




Fig. 5. — ^Section through an intestinal lipoma, sho^^illg the strangulated 
bowel at two places (nat. size). 



enormous size. Their structure is that of white fibrous tissue, 
but myxomatosis areas are often present. The melanotic 
fibroma is found on the skin, most frequently in red oxen. 
The myoma, which is composed of non-striped muscle cells, 
is sometimes fouiid in connection with the genital organs of 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDLTIONS 



51 



the sow. It is usually of large size, and may show calcareous 
areas. 

The lipomata have the structure of adipose tissue. They are 
sometimes found under the skin or in the abdominal cavities of 
the ox. Fig. 5 is a section of a lipoma which weighed about 
50 lb. Two portions of the bowel are seen passing through 
the mass. 




Fig. 6. — Microscopical section of a carcinoma 
(Eeicliert, obj. 3). 



The malignant neoj^lasms are of more importance, as second- 
ary metastatic growths may invade the internal organs after 
the manner of an infective disease. It should be mentioned, 
however, that the malignant tumours do not display the same 
tendency to become generalised in animals as in human beings. 
There are three chief forms, viz. Sarcoma, Carcinoma, and 
Adenoma. 

Sarcoma.— The sarcoma is a neoplasm composed of embryonic 



52 



ME- A T INSPE CTION 



connective tissue cells, which may be either round or spindle- 
shaped. The elements tend to remain embryonic, but occasion- 
ally the mass of cells has a fibrous capsule. The spindle-cell 
variety is always mixed with round cells. Giant cells are almost 
unknown. Bound cell sarcomata are seen in connection with 
the skin and mucous membranes. The Editor has on several 




EiG. 7. — Microscopical section of an adenoma in the liver of 
an ox (Reichert, obj. 3). 



occasions found multiple round-cell sarcomata in the kidney of 
the ox. 

The spindle-cell variety is found usually in connection with 
bones, particularly those of the jaw in the ox. In one case 
observed by the Editor in a cow, the inferior maxilla and 
several other bones, including the ilium, were the seats of these 
neoplasms. Some of the bones were quite fibrous in the region 
of the growth. 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 53 

Carcinoma. — A cancer consists of a mass of epithelial cells 
embedded in vascular connective tissue (Fig. 6). They are 
uncommon in cattle and sheep, and rare in the pig. 

The tumours are found usually on the skin, and on mucous 
membranes, in the liver, and frequently in the lymph glands 
in communication with these structures. 

Adenoma.— The adenomata are made up of fibrous tissue 
and Qjpithelium arranged like a gland (Fig. 7). The acinal 
arrangement is the commonest. Sometimes the cells are in 
dense groups, which are separated from each other by a delicate 
strand of connective tissue. In another form there is a distinct 
acinal space. The cells are not secretory, but the acini some- 
times contain colloid material. The Editor has met with 
several cases of adenomata in the livers of sheep and oxen, 
and one case in the intestines and mesenteric glands of a 
sheep. 

/Tispeciion.— Experimental evidence is against the idea that 
the malignant neoplasms can be conveyed either by inoculation 
or ingestion of the growths. The carcase of an affected animal, 
however, may be emaciated and unfit for the market when 
important organs have been invaded. 

FEVEEED FLESH 

We do not know all the causes of the condition termed 
fever or pyrexia, but in the majority of cases the rise in tem- 
perature is due to the presence of poisons, usually of bacterial 
origin, in the circulation. 

During fever the metabolism is increased in the tissues 
throughout the body. The muscles provide a good deal of the 
fuel for the increased combustion. The organs and muscles 
may be in a condition of cloudy swelling, but the latter are 
frequently darker than normal in colour, and show small 
haemorrhages in their substance. 

It does not necessarily follow that the flesh will be dark 
in colour because the temperature was high at the time of 



54 MEAT INSPECTION 

death ; but it often happens that the fevered animal, being near 
the point of death before coming into the abattoir, does not 
bleed well, and its flesh appears darker than normal. 

/uspeciio'?!.— The duty of the inspector will depend on 
whether the animal has been suffering from some bacterial 
disease which is transmissible to man, and on the appearance 
of the flesh. 

To the mind of the Meat Inspector the term " fevered flesh " 
generally conveys the idea that the muscles are very dark in 
colour, and albuminous or soapy to the touch. Flesh of this 
description is repulsive, but the exact degree of darkness 
which should exclude it from the market is impossible to lay 
down. That must be left to the inspector. The procedure in 
the case of an animal affected with a contagious disease is dis- 
cussed in the various chapters dealing with that subject. 



WOUNDS 

Trivial wounds unaccompanied by septic changes hardly 
call for notice. 

It sometimes happens, however, that an animal gets badly 
injured during transit. The injuries may consist of multiple 
bruises, or a limb may be fractured. 

A bruise is accompanied by extravasation of blood under 
the skin and into the tissues. The muscles around a frac- 
tured bone are also infiltrated by blood, and the fibres are 
usually lacerated. The dark-red condition of the flesh might, 
at first sight, lead one to suspect black quarter; but in the 
case of fracture, the broken bone and the absence of emphysema 
will be sufficient to determine the diagnosis. 

Counter irritants, such as mustard, applied to the skin, 
may sometimes produce very marked lesions. It is usually in 
the region of the chest that mustard is applied. The sub- 
cutaneous tissue is swollen and infiltrated by lymph, which 
issues as yellow droplets from the injured surface. 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 55 

Inspection. — Suj)purating and gangrenous wounds are 
dealt with elsewhere. 

When an animal has been badly injured, even if the wound 
be not septic, the flesh throughout the carcase may be very 
dark in colour. It often presents an unbled ajDpearance, and 
it generally fails to set firmly. Under these circumstances 
it should be considered unmarketable. 

Wliien the effects of the injury are purely local, the carcase 
may be passed after the discoloured portions have been re- 
moved. 

A large portion of a carcase may have to be condemned, 
owing to the effects of a severe counter-irritant applied to the 
skin. As these agents, however, are generally employed in 
the treatment of inflammatory diseases, there may, in this 
case, be a good reason for condemning the whole carcase. 

EUPTURE OF THE OESOPHAGUS 

When unsliced tiu'nips are fed to oxen, it sometimes happens 
that a portion of the root becomes impacted in the oesophagus. 
During an attempt to force the obstructing body onwards 
with a probang, the oesophagus may be ruptured. This usually 
occurs in the thoracic portion of the organ. After an accident 
of this kind the animal has to be slaughtered. 

The subcutaneous tissues in the region of the neck become 
emphysematous, owing to gases which have penetrated from 
the rumen. A small quantity of ingesta is found in the chest 
cavity, and the pleura may show signs of septic inflammation. 
The flesh is soft and watery. It has a dirty red colour, and 
gives off a distinct aniline oil or turnipy odour. It may 
also have a somewhat sour smell. These changes are par- 
ticularly well seen in the intercostal flesh. The odour is 
apparently due to aromatic agents absorbed from the fer- 
menting mass in the rumen. 

Inspection.— The flesh of a choked animal, as it is popularly 
called, is particularly repulsive on account of its appearance 



56 MEAT INSPECTION 

and smell. Even if the animal has been slaughtered before 
pleurisy has set in, the condition of the flesh will render the 
carcase unmarketable. 

The odour is best observed when a fresh cut is made into 
the substance of the muscles. 

SUFFOCATION 

Sheep are very often suffocated by being trainpled on by 
their companions during transit in overcrowded railway trucks 
or in market-pens. The Annual Beport of the Chief Sanitary 
and Market Inspector shows that in 1898 fifty-one carcases 
of sheep were condemned at the Edinburgh abattoir on 
account of alterations due to suffocation. 

In an animal dead from suffocation the subcutaneous 
surface will be found to have a generalised red colour, which 
arises from fulness of the capillary vessels. The lungs are 
congested. The flesh does not set firmly. It is dark red in 
colour ; indeed, it may not have been bled. 

/Ttspeciio 71. — Carcases presenting the above appearances 
are unmarketable. In Edinburgh they are always seized. 

FATIGUE 

If an animal has been fatigued by a long journey on foot, 
it should not be slaughtered until it has recovered from the 
effects of the march. Eest is all the more necessary when 
the animal has been lamed during the journey. 

During unwonted exertion, waste products of a poisonous 
nature— creatine, creatinine, etc. — accumulate in the muscles. 
These substances cause temporary alterations in the appear- 
ance and composition of the flesh, and they may give rise to 
fatigue fever. The flesh of an animal killed soon after a 
fatiguing journey does not set firmly. It is often very dark 
in colour and sticky to the touch. It has all the character- 
istics of fevered flesh. Moreover, it is tough, and diffi- 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 57 

cult to digest when cooked. Animals landed from a long 
sea voyage often show oedema of the parts which have come 
most in contact with the hard decks. This is best observed 
in the pectoral muscles. 

The bodies of animals which have been hunted to death 
enter soon into rigor mortis, which passes off quickly. Small 
haemorrhages are often found in the muscular tissue. 

I Timpection.— The flesh of fatigued animals is usually un- 
marketable from its appearance alone. It has also been 
credited, however, with giving rise to serious symptoms of 
poisoning in individuals who have partaken of it. 

Several oxen, which had been newly imported, broke away 
from the railway station at Paris, and were chased for a 
considerable distance. Some of them died of fatigue. Redon 
injected from 1 to 15 c.c. of their serum into the veins of three 
rabbits, with the result that the animals all died in from five 
hours to two days. 

Such observations are of course interesting, but they have 
little bearing on the effects of the flesh when ingested. They 
do not even furnish conclusive evidence that the serum of 
fatigued animals is specially nocuous, for the serum of a normal 
animal, if injected into one of a different species, may cause 
death. 

Pleindoux has observed that the flesh of bulls killed in 
the arena putrefies very rapidly. Fournol stated that broth 
made from the flesh of fatigued animals soon became sour and 
putrefied ; the explanation being that the products of tissue 
disintegration ferment more quickly than the tissues them- 
selves. 

ALTERATIONS IN THE FLESH PRODUCED BY DRUGS 

It not infrequently happens that animals which have 
been under medical treatment are sent to the abattoir, the 
owners preferring to slaughter them rather than take the 
risk of their dying. 



58 MEAT INSPECTION 

Some of the drugs they have been receiving may have 
produced alterations in the flesh ; or it may be that the animal 
has been poisoned. 

The volatile drugs, such as ether, turpentine, carbolic 
acid, creasote, camphor, and the aromatics^ may give an odour 
to the flesh. 

If an animal be killed while in physic, especially in the 
case of saline purgatives, the flesh may be soft and watery, 
OAving to a hydraemic condition of the blood. When an 
animal has been poisoned, it seldom happens that the inspector 
is furnished with a history of the case. He may, from an 
ordinary examination, suspect poisoning, but in the absence 
of a history it might require a laborious chemical analysis 
to enable him to give a decided opinion. 

The metallic and irritant poisons produce gastro-enteritis. 
The alimentary membrane in this case shows patches of con- 
gestion, which are sometimes hsemorrhagic. Such lesions, 
however, may arise from other causes ; they are not pathog- 
nomonic of poisoning by any special drug. The odour of the 
intestinal contents, as in the case of carbolic acid, creasote, and 
phosphorus, in combination with the lesions, may enable one 
to make a correct diagnosis. 

There are some poisons, however, such as arsenic, which 
are odourless in the tissues. There are others which cause 
no definite lesions, such is strychnine. Phosphorus, arsenic, 
and strychnine are cumulative poisons ; that is to say, they 
are stored up in certain organs— in the liver, for example. 
The first two cause fatty changes in the organs ; but death 
may have supervened before extensive fatty degeneration 
has had time to take place. The only apparent changes in 
the case of strychnine are those of asphyxia. 

As the case is with the ingesta, the liver of an animal 
poisoned by phosphorus gives oflt a more or less pungent odour, 
which is intensified by heating the material under examina- 
tion. Every odour is intensified by raising the teinperature. 
If, in the case of phosphorus, the warming process be con- 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 59 

ducted in a dark room, the characteristic luminous appear- 
ance will be seen. When the poison is lead or arsenic, one 
may find pieces of lead-foil and masses of dry lead or arsenical 
paint in some part of the alimentary track. They are 
occasionally found in the rumen of the ox, for example. 
■ Inspection.— Ill acute cases of poisoning the flesh is usually 
fevered ; often it has an unbled appearance. The changes 
present* in the tissues and organs are usually so marked that 
the carcase would be condemned as unmarketable, irrespective 
of the cause. In a number of fowls poisoned by phosphorus, 
however, the Editor found a strong odour in the ingesta and 
liver, and yet the flesh was practically normal in appearance. 
In poisoning by strychnine it has been shown that the flesh 
contains the drug. 

Lewin poisoned fowls, which are very resistant, by adminis- 
tering strychnine in doses of -2 grms. The flesh was given 
to dogs in portions of 125 grms. The first meal made the 
dog ill ; the second gave rise to fatal convulsions. 

One must admit, then, that the flesh of animals poisoned 
by strychnine is unfit for consumption; but there will be 
nothing to arouse the inspector's suspicions unless he has 
seen the animal during life. 

In cases of chronic poisoning by arsenic or lead, the animal 
is emaciated and the organs are usually fatty. The flesh 
may be watery and anaemic in appearance, but it is not always 
markedly altered. The fate of the carcase Avill usually be 
decided by its condition, for the inspector can hardly be ex- 
pected to diagnose poisoning unless he has obtained a history 
of the animal and has seen it during life. As arsenic enters 
into the composition of some sheep-dips and ointments, one is 
helped to a decision by the state of the skin and the presence 
of diseased conditions against which this drug is employed. 

In cases of chronic poisoning it is doubtful whether these 
metallic poisons are ever present in sufficient quantity to cause 
serious harm to an individual who may partake of the animal's 
flesh, for under ordinary circumstances he will only consume a 



6o MEAT INSPECTION 

small portion. If it be known, however, that the animal has 
suffered from poisoning by arsenic or lead, the consumer 
should have the benefit of the doubt, even if the flesh be 
marketable in appearance. The degenerated organs should, 
in any case, be dealt with as indicated with regard to cases of 
fatty degeneration. 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE FOOD 

The influence of certain food-stuffs on the flesh and fat 
is undeniable, but exaggerated ideas of their effect are enter- 
tained by many farmers. 

The flesh of young animals fed exclusively on milk is soft 
and white. It becomes darker and firmer as they begin to 
eat grass and meal. 

The fat of animals which have been forced on maize or 
cake may be yellow and wanting in consistence. The colour 
is due either to lipo-chromes or to a high proportion of olein, 
and the want of consistence is caused by the latter substance. 
As regards the reputed influence of maize on the fat, it should 
be mentioned that the adipose tissue of American oxen is 
white and firm, although maize enters largely into their 
diet. 

It is known from the experiments of Lebedeff and Munk, that 
if starved dogs be fed on sheep fat they store it directly, without 
Avaiting to transform it into dog fat. The fat deposited under 
these circumstances has a melting-point of about 40° C, whereas 
the normal fat of the dog is semi-fluid at 20° C. When colza 
oil was used, the fat deposited melted at 23° C. It contained 
82-4 per cent, of oleic acid, while normal dog fat gives about 
65 per cent, of this substance. Erucic acid, a constituent of 
colza oil, was also present. When linseed oil was given to the 
starved animals, the fat deposited remained fluid at 0° 0. 
These experiments offer a possible explanation of the con- 
flicting statements which have been made with regard to 
the influence of certain food-stuffs on the fat of animals. 



GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 6i 

viz. that it depends largely on the condition of the animal 
when first put on the diet. 

The fat of animals fed on distillery grains is said to be 
yellowish in colour. Eancid cakes give a special odour to the 
flesh. Turnips accentuate the cow odour of the flesh of cows ; 
and when the animal has been choked it has a marked 
turnipy smell (see Euptuee of the CEsophagus). 

In -Scandinavia many of the cattle are ichthyophagous. 
Their fat is oily, and it both tastes and smells fishy. The same 
thing may be sometimes observed in poultry from Shetland ; 
and the flesh of rabbits which feed on kelp-manured ground 
has a similar flavour. It is also very noticeable in ptarmigan. 
This flavour disappears if the fish diet be withheld for about 
three weeks before slaughter. 

The flesh of birds fattened on hemp-seed is yellow and oily. 
When the diet of pigs has been largely carnivorous, the flavour 
of the flesh is coarse, and the lard is soft. 

/uspec^ioTi.— Unless there be a distinct rule bearing on 
these cases in this or that abattoir, the inspector can hardly 
interfere if the departure from the normal be purely one of 
flavour. If the carcase be otherwise of good quality, it would 
be difficult to justify its seizure on account of slight alterations 
in colour or odour which cannot be attributed to any patho- 
logical condition. 

The Editor is of opinion that flesh which has an abnormal 
and markedly distasteful odour should be considered unmarket- 
able, because the purchaser is not likely to discover it until 
the joint is served at the table. It is then too late to return 
it to the butcher. 



POST-MORTEM CHANGES IN FLESH 

Dead flesh, as every one knows, begins to alter almost im- 
mediately. In the majority of slaughtered animals in this 
climate, the albumin of the cells throughout the body has become 
solid in about twelve hours. The carcase, however, may set, 
to use the popular expression, in less than twelve hours. The 
after-changes are due to the action of ferments, most of which 
are bacterial in origin. The rapidity with which the flesh 
becomes altered depends on the temperature, the character of 
the invading microbes, and the condition of the animal at the 
time of death. It is well known that a moderately high tem- 
perature is favourable to bacterial life, and that bacteria are 
ubiquitous. One may temporarily arrest their growth by keep- 
ing the temperature at a few degrees above freezing-point ; but 
as soon as the chilling process ceases, bacterial life again becomes 
active. If a flesh storehouse is not provided with a means for 
keeping the temperature low enough to arrest the growth of 
microbes, the dust should be laid with some cheap antiseptic 
fluid, such as a solution of permanganate of potash. Such 
agents as chloride of lime and carbolic acid are unsuitable, as 
they may give an odour to the flesh. The meat should also be 
protected from blue flies by clean muslin coverings. The mag- 
gots of these flies aid the penetration of microbes, and they are 
one means by which germs are brought in contact with the 
flesh. Meat which has been improperly bled does not keep so 
well as that from which most of the blood has been removed. 
The explanation seems to be that when an albuminous fluid 
is left in the vessels, microbes from the sui-face are able to 
spread more quickly into the centre of the flesh. Most of the 

62 



POST-MORTEM CHANGES IN FLESH 63 

post - mortem alterations in flesh come under the head of 
Putrefaction. 

PUTREFACTION 

Putrefaction is a decomposition of organic substances caused 
by microbes. The bacteria of putrefaction are innumerable. 
Indeed, any microbe which is able to grow on dead meat may 
help iy. the putrefactive process. The germs invade the flesh 
from outside sources, or they may penetrate the tissues from 
the intestines if the latter are left too long in the body. The 
influence of certain disease processes on the keeping properties 
of the flesh will frequently be referred to in the chapters on 
Diseases. In the first stages of the process the aerobic microbes 
grow most abundantly ; but as these use up the oxygen the 
anaerobes also multiply. In the putrefying material a con- 
stant struggle for existence goes on between the different 
kinds of bacteria, and some of them, after a more or less short 
period of existence, are crushed out. 

In the decomposition process, various products, such as 
leucin, ty rosin, butyric acid, indol, scatol, and a host of other 
substances, are formed by reduction and chemical combination. 
Gases, such as 0, H, and N, are set free, while others— HgS, 
00^, NH3 — are formed l^y combination. Many of the products 
arc aromatic, and give off special odours. Some of them are 
poisonous. 

Certain of the bacteria are chromogenic in character, that 
is to say, they give rise to various coloured substances during 
their groAvth ; but this function depends on the nature of the 
organic medium as well as on the species of microbe. Others 
render the medium luminous, but this will be referred to later. 

The poisonous products are the ptomaines or basic alkaloids, 
and the albumoses or toxalbumins. 

Most of the latter, which are perhaps the most poisonous, 
are destroyed by a temi^erature of 150° F. Many of the ptom- 
aines remain active after being heated to 230° F. Those which 
are formed in the first stages are not particularly poisonous. 



64 MEAT INSPECTION 

It is unnecessary to speak here of the action of these sub- 
stances on the system, as this subject will be dealt with in 
the chapter on Food Poisoning. 

Putrefying flesh is softer and more fluid than the normal. 
Its colour varies from dark green to black, the latter colour 
being due to the formation of sulphide of iron. It is often 
emphysematous owing to gases liberated by the bacteria, and 
a putrefactive odour is given off. The character of the latter 
depends on the nature of the aromatic substances formed, and 
that again depends on the species of the microbes. It is a mix- 
ture of smells, but that of H^S often predominates. Sometimes 
the odour is sour, and that of some well-known substance, such 
as butyric acid, may be very evident. 

/nspec^'ion. — The general custom is to seize all putrefying 
flesh. Its poisonous properties will be dealt with in another 
chapter ; they are undeniable. 

The flesh of game and deer, however, is often eaten when 
in an advanced state of decomposition, and there are some 
individuals who like even their mutton to be a little high, to 
use a popular expression. 

The microbic products exercise a peptonising influence 
on the tissues, which renders them tender. The aromatic 
substances, moreover, give the flesh a flavour to which many 
individuals are partial. Nevertheless, it should not be per- 
missible to sell putrefying flesh of any kind. The buyer 
who prefers to eat rotten flesh may keep his purchase until 
its condition is to his taste. If any accident should follow, 
the responsibility will then rest on himself. The method of 
labelling game or venison with the date on which the animals 
were slaughtered, too evidently lends itself to fraud to be 
worth discussing. 

Thorough cooking will certainly destroy the microbes 
and the albumoses, which are their most poisonous products ; 
but the flesh might happen to be served in a half -cooked 
condition. 

Every one knows, of course, that the contents of the posterior 



POST-MORTEM CHANGES IN FLESH 65 

bowel consist of putrefying organic material, which is usually 
excreted before the process has gone far enough to produce 
toxic symptoms. That, however, hardly justifies a wholesale 
introduction of microbes and their toxines into the alimentary 
track, for we know that colic follows when the fermentation 
process is unduly activated, and that cases of poisoning have 
arisen from the ingestion of putrefying flesh. Moreover, 
abnorijjal fermentation processes, such as the butyric, may 
be set up in the human stomach by the introduction of 
special microbes. These processes give rise to various forms 
of dyspepsia. We know also that some pathogenic bacteria, 
such as the bacillus of malignant oedema, exist in the intestines 
of most animals without doing any harm. Nobody, however, 
would care to swallow material which contained these microbes, 
even supposing that the risk of being infected by way of the 
alimentary track is not great. 

PHOSPHORESCENT MEAT 

Phosphorescent rays are sometimes given ofi from dead 
meat, either in the cooked or raw state. This is observed in 
dark chambers, and it dejDends on the formation of phos- 
phorus, which is brought about by certain microbes. The 
phosphorescence appears in about forty-eight hours, and it 
lasts for about a week, if the flesh does not become putrid. 
As soon as putrefaction is established the luminous appearance 
is lost. The best known microbes which cause phosphorescence 
in flesh are the Micrococcus pfiugeri (Ludwig) and the Photo- 
bacterium sarcoyhilum (Dubois). 

The first is a micrococcus which measures about 1 yu, in 
diameter. The second is a short bacillus measuring from 
1 to 1-5 yu, in length. The luminous phenomena are most active 
when the flesh is kept at a temperature somewhat below 20° C. 
It ma}^ still be evident at -3° C, or even at a lower tempera- 
ture, but it begins to disappear above 30° C. 

Inspection. — The bacteiia of phosphorescence are not 

5 



6 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

pathogenic ; indeed, the luminous condition often indicates 
that putrefaction is not advanced. Under these circumstances 
there is no necessity for interfering with flesh on account of 
this condition. 

MOULDY FLESH 

The surface of a carcase may become covered by greyish, 
greenish, or black coloured moulds. These appear as a powdei'y 
or downy layer. The flesh, if it be not in the dried condition, 
is usually putrid. 

iTis^^eciio)!/.— Since mouldy flesh is usually putrid as well, 
it should be seized. There is not the same necessity, however, 
for dealing rigorously with dried flesh, such as hams, when 
moulds are present on the surface. Indeed, it is very difficult 
to keep them quite free from moulds. The greater part of 
these surface growths can be removed by scraping, and the 
cooking process destroys what remains on the surface. 



INFLAMMATORY DISEASES 

The diseases consigned to this chapter are those which are 
generally referred to as sporadic inflammation by clinicians. 
Many of them are believed to be caused by saprophytic microlDes, 
which have managed to gain a footing in an organism whose 
natural resistance has been weakened by disease. Some are 
caused by animal parasites, which may l^e assisted in their 
action by microbes ; while others are due to the effects of 
mechanical or chemical irritants. Inflammation of a se^Dtic 
or jDutrid type is due to the microbes of suppuration or puti'e- 
faction gaining access to an inflamed or abraded tissue. 

The inflammatory condition is characterised by vascular 
congestion and the apjjearance in the tissues of materia] 
exuded from the vessels. The exudate contains a great 
many leucocytes, a variable amount of fibrine, and sometimes 
a considerable number of red cells. When the disturbance 
is located in a mucous membrane— catarrhal inflammation— 
the exudate contains epithelial cells. 

If the cause be a specific one, which acts on several organs 
at the same time, or in a pi'ogressive manner, the affection 
usually receives a special name -tuberculosis, for example. 
When the inflammatory changes are confined to an organ or 
to contiguous organs, such as the lungs and pleura, they receive 
names which signify that the organ is inflamed - pleuritis, 
for example. If a simple inflammation become sejDtic, however, 
metastatic lesions may be found in remote organs. The specific 
diseases will be described in special sections ; mammitis and 
septic metritis have been classed with them. The others, which 
are of interest to the Meat Inspector, will he dealt with here. 



68 MEAT INSPECTION 

PNEUMONIA 

This term is applied to inflammation of the lungs. 

Lesio-n-s. — Two forms of pneumonia are met with— Broncho- 
Pneumonia and Lobar Pneumonia. 

In broncho-jDneumonia the inflammation is of the catarrhal 
type. The vast majoiity of the cases met with in the animals 
of the abattoir are due to Strongyli (see Hoose). The lesions 
seldom cause alteration in the flesh. 

In lobar j^neumonia the lung tissue over a large area 
is solid, airless, and sinks when put into water. The pleura 
may also be inflamed. The consistence of the lung approaches 
that of the hver, hence it is said to be hepatised. 

On section, the surface of the solid i^ai't is of a dirty grey 
and red colour. It has a distant resemblance to a piece of 
unpohshed red granite. At a later stage, when softening of 
the exudate is taking place, the grey colour is more marked, 
and a thin pus-hke fluid exudes from the cut surface. 

The microscope shows that the consolidation is due to the 
presence of an exudate in the alveoli. The walls of the latter 
are swollen and infiltrated by cells. The exudate consists 
mainly of leucocytes, a small amount of fibrine, and a variable 
number of red corpuscles. 

Gangrene may supervene on pneumonia, or the changes 
may be of a septic type from the first (see Gangkene and 
Septic Meteitis). 

PLEURISY. 

The terms pleurisy and pleuritis indicate that the i^leura is 
inflamed. 

The extent of the lesion may be limited to a small patch 
corresponding to the surface of an abscess in the lungs, the 
diaphragm, or a lymphatic gland. It may correspond to an 
area of pneumonia, or it may extend over the greater part of 
the pleura on each side, while the lungs are little altered. 

In the initial stage the membrane is congested in certain 



INFLAMMA TOR Y DISEASES 69* 

parts. It soon becomes swollen, grey, and ojoaque, however, 
owing to the appearance of a fibrinous exudate in its substance 
and on its surface. A turbid and albuminous fluid contain- 
ing many white cells is present in the chest cavity, but the 
amount is variable, and may be almost imperceptible. 

The exudate on the surface coagulates and forms a false 
membrane, which may establish a temporary adhesion between 
two "^arts of the pleura. If the disease has become chronic, 
permanent adhesions are formed by proHferation of the fibrous 
tissue in the two surfaces. 

After rupture of the oesophagus or penetration of a foreign 
body fi'om the second stomach in cattle, a putrid form of pleurisy 
is often present. The exudate in this case is usually dry and 
cheese-hke, and it gives off a putrid odour {see Supptteattve 
Diseases, and Euptuke of the (Esophagus). 



PERITONITIS 

Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum. With the 
exception of a few traumatic cases and the tuberculous forms, 
it mostly occurs in cattle and sheep as the result of extension 
of an inflammatory process from the uterus, and it is of the 
septic type. The latter, however, may also arise from perfora- 
tion of the bowel or bladder, 

Lesions.— The changes consequent upon peritonitis are 
analogous to those of pleurisy. The septic form will be 
described later (see Septic Meteitis). 



PERICARDITIS 

Inflammation of the pericardium in animals of the abattoir 
arises almost always from traumatism, or as a comphcation of 
another disease. 

Lesions. ^T\\&v are similar to those seen in other serous 



7 o ME A T INSPE CTION 

membranes. In cattle the commonest cause is the penetration 
of a foreign body from the second stomach (see Suppuration 
IN THE Heart). The heart wall is usually implicated to some 
extent — Myocarditis. 

ENDOCAEDITIS 

Inflammation of the internal lining of the heart is most 
frequently seen in pigs. It is referred to in the section on 
Swine Erysipelas. In sheep and oxen the lesion is very 
rare. 

Nodular vegetations are found on the valves, and the cusps 
are distorted. 

NEPHRITIS 

Nephritis means inflammation of the kidney. It may 
appear as a complication of certain infectious diseases, such as 
swine fever ; but it may also arise independently from the 
penetration of microbes to the kidney by way of the urino- 
genital track, or from the administration in poisonous doses of 
irritant drugs, such as turpentine, which are excreted by the 
kidneys. 

jLes'ioTis.— The changes may be either acute or chronic in 
type. They may be confined i3rincij)ally to the lining of the 
tubules — Catarrhal or Tubal Nephritis — or they may be 
located in the intertubal tissue— Interstitial Nephritis. 

Acute tubal nephritis is seldom seen in the abattoir, but 
the acute interstitial form is by no means rare in pigs, and a 
good many chronic cases are met with in cows. 

In the acute forms the kidney is congested. The Mal- 
pighian bodies are jDrominent, the surface of section is mottled, 
and the consistence of the tissue is sometimes pnlpy. 

In the chronic forms the capsule is often adherent; the 
organ is paler, harder, and sometimes smaller than normal, 
owing to contraction of new tissue. The surface may be 



I NFL A MM A TOR Y DISEA SES 7 1 

irregular. Large hsemorrliages may be found in tlie substance 
of the organ. In the tubal variety the microscope shows that 
the epithelial cells are desquamating, and a catarrhal exudate, 
mixed with leucocytes, red blood cells, and albumin, is present 
in the tubules. Some of the lining cells are cloudy, or fatty. 

In the acute interstitial form the intertubal tissue is in- 
filtrated by leucocytes, and in chronic cases a considerable 
amount of new fibrous tissue is formed. The latter obliterates 
many of the tubules and vessels. 

lif a tubule be blocked by exudate or new tissue, its proximal 
part may become dilated into a cyst by the accumulation of 
urine. Should the ureter become occluded, the whole kidney 
may become cystic ; that is to say, the kidney substance under- 
goes atrophy owing to the pressure of the acciimulated fluid. 



OSTEITIS 

Osteitis is inflammation of bone. It is usually accom- 
panied by periostitis, and masses of new bone may be formed. 
The affection runs a chronic course, and the muscles around 
the bone may be implicated. The muscles in the imme- 
diate neighbourhood may show lesions of chronic myositis. 
The results of suppurative osteitis are referred to under 

SUPPUEATION. 

Inspection in the case of Inflammatory Diseases 

Acute inflammatory diseases are always accompanied by 
elevation of the temperature, so that the carcase may have to 
be condemned on account of the fevered condition of the flesh. 
In chronic cases the flesh may be of good appearance, but the 
affected parts should all be removed before the carcase is 
allowed into the market. It may even be necessary to strip 
oft' the pleura. When the inflammation has been septic in 
character, the flesh is usually of bad appearance if the affected 



72 MEAT INSPECTION 

area is at all extensive. It is dark in colour, flaccid, soapy to 
tlie touch, and, in addition, is a]it to pnti'efy rapidly. ' Under 
such circumstances the carcase should be seized. 

In cases of chronic endocarditis and nephritis the whole 
carcase may be dropsical, but one is" sometimes surprised to 
find how extensively diseased these organs may be without 
the production of alterations in the fl.esh. 



DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

For want of the necessary information for forming a more 
correct classification, certain pathological conditions have 
been classed as diseases of the blood. It must be understood, 
however, that the alterations in the blood arise from ill-under- 
stood, though sometimes perfectly apparent, changes in im- 
portant organs. 

ANiEMIA 

This term in its widest sense means deficiency in any con- 
stituent of the blood, but it has come to have a more restricted 
meaning. One generally understands by anaemia that the 
red cells are below the normal number — OLigocythcBmia, 
or that the haemoglobin is deficient. These conditions can 
only be diagnosed with certainty by examining the blood of 
an animal during life, or while it is being bled. The haema- 
cytometer is necessary for counting the red blood corpuscles,^ 
and the haemoglobinometer for estimating the haemoglobin. 

It will not be necessary for the inspector to make such 
minute observations on the blood, however, as he is only con- 
cerned when the flesh is altered. The severe or pernicious 
form of anaemia in animals is caused only by blood parasites 
(see Peotozoa) ; but a milder variety, which corresponds to 

1 The Editor has made a considerable number of observations on the blood 
of apparently healthy cattle and sheep, and he finds that the average number 
of red cells per cubic millimetre is six millions in cattle and nine and a lialf 
millions in sheep. The hsemoglobin of bovine animals averages 68 per cent, 
(lowest 55 per cent.) on Von Fleischl's scale, and that of sheep 58 per cent, 
(lowest 52 per cent.). 

73 



74 MEAT INSPECTION 

chlorosis of human pathologists, is met with as the result of 
some chronic diseased condition. 

The flesh of truly anaemic animals is paler than normal, 
flabby, watery, and emaciated. Small punctiform haemor- 
rhages are sometimes present in the muscles and on the serous 
membranes. The cachectic condition produced by certain 
parasites, such as the liver fluke, is usually put down to anaemia ; 
but there are no observations sufficiently definite to show 
that this view is pathologically correct. In cases of this kind, 
however, the exact pathological condition is of secondary im- 
portance to the Meat Inspector ; for he should seize emaciated 
and watery carcases whether the cause be anaemia or not. 

LEUCOCYTHiEMIA 

This is a disease in which the white cells of the blood are 
permanently increased in number, the increase being accom- 
panied by enlargement of the lymphatic glands or the spleen, 
and by alteration in the bone marrow. All these organs may 
be simultaneously altered.-^ 

In some of the bacterial diseases which run a chronic course, 
and in pregnant females, the leucocytes are slightly increased 
in number, but the glands throughout the body are not en- 
larged. The cause of leiicocythaemia is still unknown, but 
there is a tendency to regard it as a bacterial disease. 

Afhiffhals a^eciecZ. — Leucocythaemia is rarely seen in the 
animals used for human food, although, according to the 
Editor's experience, it is not a very rare disease in dogs. Only 
one or two cases have been described in cows and pigs. Human 
beings sometimes suffer from this disease. 

Lesious. — Changes may be present in the bone marrow, 
the spleen, the lymph glands, and the organs. The marrow 

^ Pseudoleukfeniia is a condition in which the lymph glands are enlarged 
without any marked increase in the number of white corpuscles. So far as the 
Editor is aware, this disease has not been observed in the animals of the 
abattoir. 



DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 75 

is regarded as the most constant site of lesions. Clinicians 
speak of a myelogenous form in which the abnormalities are seen 
mainly in the marrow, a lymphatic form in which the lymph 
glands are the principal organs diseased, and a splenic variety 
in which the spleen is enlarged. Combinations of the fore- 
going are also recognised. Thus we hear of Lymphatico-splenic 
and Spleno-medullary leucocythcemia. These are all mani- 
festatioae of the same disease, the blood-forming organs being 
the seat of distm^bance. The flesh is very pale in colour, and 
it may show haemorrhages. 

Blood.— The blood is lighter in colour than normal; in 
very bad cases it looks like a mixture of blood and pus. White 
clots are present in the heart. The blood gives off a peculiar 
sickly odour. It coagulates slowly, and the buffy coat is very 
distinct. On examining the blood under the microscope, the 
white cells are found to be more numerous than normal, and 
the octahedral crystals of Charcot and Leyden appear. If 
the white cells be counted during the life of the animal,^ it 
will be found that they are increased absolutely and relatively 
to the red corpuscles. The proportion of white to red in 
leucocythsemia may be as high as 1 to 12. 

Lymphatic glands.— The glands throughout the body 
are enlarged, it may be to three or four times the normal size. 
Small groups of glands, which usually pass unnoticed, stand out 
prominently. On section, their substance has the consistence 
of brain tissue, and a creamy fluid exudes from the surface. 

The microscope shows the glands to be packed with hnnpho- 
cytes. 

Spleen.— The spleen may be enlarged to several times 
the normal. In a case observed by the Editor in a horse, the 
spleen weighed nearly 80 lb. The capsule is much thickened. 

^ A special lifemacytometer pipette is necessary for this operation. Tlie 
number of white cells in the blood of a healthy animal varies according to the 
time of day at wliicli the examination is made. The Editor has seldom found 
them to exceed 12,000 per cubic millimetre in the ox or sheep. The proportion 
of white to red is 1 to 900 or 1 to 1100. 



76 MEAT INSPECTION 

On section, the consistence is pul^Dy, and tlie colour is that of 
crushed strawberry. In some cases the Malpighian bodies 
stand out prominently like large grains of sago, but in others 
they do not appear to be altered. 

The microscope shows that the non-striped muscle cells in 
the capsule and trabeculse are increased in number. The 
substance of the organ is densely infiltrated with leucocytes. 
When the Malpighian bodies are enlarged they are found 
to be similarly infiltrated, and they may merge into each 
other. 

There is no likelihood of this lesion being mistaken for 
anthrax. The absence of the tarry appearance of the pulp, 
which is characteristic of the anthrax spleen, is of itself a 
sufE-cient distinction. 

Bone marrow.— If a long bone be split longitudinally, 
the red marrow appears of the same colour as the blood. Cover- 
glass preparations show that the white cells are exceedingly 
numerous, and many nucleated red cells may be seen. 

The other internal organs may show no macroscopic change, 
but the microscope often reveals the presence of many small 
collections of leucocytes in their substance. These might 
easily be mistaken for small abscesses or miliary tubercles ; 
probably they are bacterial in origin. In the liver the capil- 
laries may be so dilated that tliey can be seen with the naked 
eye as light red streaks. 

Inspection.— In most cases the condition of the flesh and 
the contained glands ' would warrant the withdrawal of the 
carcase from the market. If it be true that leucoc3^thsemia 
is a bacterial disease, the microbes must travel all over the 
body, because lesions of a kind are found in most of the organs. 
Keeping in mind the fact that human beings suft'er from the 
disease, the Editor is of opinion that total seizure should be 
applied in all cases, whatever be the condition of the flesh. 
It is but right to state, however, that attempts to confer the 
disease to animals by experimental methods have failed, or 
given only doubtful results. 



DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 77 

RED WATER 

The term is applied in this country to a disease of cattle 
which is characterised by disintegration of the red blood cells 
and the appearance of altered blood pigment in, the urine. In 
other parts of the world the term hsemoglobinuria is employed 
to designate certain diseases in which the same symptom occurs, 
and wliich are caused by animal parasites or bacteria invading 
the blood (see Peotozoa). Neither parasites nor bacteria have 
been shown to be the cause of the disease in this country ; but 
the pathology of the aiJection has received very little atten- 
tion. Cases occur sporadically in this country, and are only 
seen in certain districts. 

Les'io /IS.— The lesions consist of congestion of the internal 
organs, especially the liver. That organ may also show small 
patches of necrosis on microscopic examination. The tubules 
of the kidney contain a brownish granular pigment. The urine 
contained in the bladder is highly coloured and albuminous. 
The tissues are often stained with bile pigment ; this is 
particularly well seen in the fat. . The flesh is pale, and has 
a macerated appearance. Certain regions show signs of 
intermuscular hsemorrhages, and some of the muscle fibres 
of the hind quarters are in a state of hyalin degeneration. 
Ansemia sometimes follows in animals which have survived 
an acute attack. Then the flesh is flabby, pale, and watery. 

Inspection.— It is seldom that animals affected with red 
water come into the abattoir, but their carcases might be sent 
in after slaughter. Those showing the above-mentioned altera- 
tions in the flesh should certainly be excluded from the market. 

URTICARIA 

Urticaria, or nettlerash, is characterised by the appearance 
of blood-tinged fluid in certain areas of the subcutaneous tissue. 
This gives rise to patches of discoloration on the skin. The 
pig is the principal sufferer from nettlerash. It sometimes 



78 MEAT INSPECTION 

attacks several animals at the same time, and b}' some author- 
ities it is looked upon as a contagious affection. Jensen has 
shown that some cases of so-called urticaria are really swine 
erysipelas in a mild form (see Swine Erysipelas). 

It is unlikely, however, that the cases observed in this 
country are caused by the bacillus of swine erysipelas, as 
that disease is not common. Possibly the skin lesions are 
due to bacterial products, as the disease often occurs after 
ingestion of fermenting foods. 

Z/esio?is. — Eed-coloured jDatches are seen on the skin, particu- 
larly in the region of the shoulder, abdomen, back, and hips. 
They are irregularly circular in shape, and measure from a 
fourth of an inch to an inch in breadth. Sometimes patches 
of several inches extent are formed by confluence. At first 
they are bright red in colour, but they soon become livid. In 
some cases pustules form on the discoloured patch. 

/■nspec^io?!.— The lesions are usually quite superficial, and 
do not interfere with the appearance of the underlying tissues. 
It must be remembered, however, that the carcase of the pig 
is not skinned. The scalding and scraping of the dressing 
process do not remove the blemishes, so that large patches of 
discoloration ma}^ spoil the marketable qualities of certain 
parts of the carcase. 

Pigs showing lesions of urticaria should not be slaughtered 
for a few days. After this lapse of time the eruption will 
have disappeared. 

The Editor has several times met with pigs' carcases show- 
ing multiple hsemorrhages in the subcutaneous fat, which 
rendered them quite unmarketable. These were more like 
the lesions of purpui'a hsemorrhagica than those of nettlei'ash. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 

Although several of the bacterial diseases are common to 
man and animals, it does not follow that they are likely to 
be transmitted to human beings through the medium of 
butcher meat. 

In a book on " Meat Inspection," the most suitable arrange- 
ment of the bacterial affections would be to divide them into 
two classes, viz. those which are transmissible from animals 
to man, and those which are not. Unfortunately, this 
classification is not possible, because it sometimes happens that 
the name of a disease of human beings has been applied to 
one, or maybe more than one, totally different affection in 
animals. 

The Editor, after many unsuccessful attemiDts, has had to 
abandon the idea of such an arrangement. The reader will 
observe that in the following pages the bacterial diseases 
first described are those which are characterised by actual 
lesions, and that those caused by moulds have been included. 
The specific bacteria of some of the aft'ections have not as 
yet been isolated, but nobody doubts that the diseases are 
bacterial in origin. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Tubei-culosis is a contagious disease caused by the growth 
of the tubercle bacillus in the tissues. 

Since 1882, when the tubercle bacillus was isolated from 
the lesions by Koch, and shown by him to be the cause of tuber- 
culosis, the disease has been the subject of many valuable papers 
and a great deal of controversy. The identity of the disease hi 

79 



8o MEAT INSPECTION 

human beings and animals, and the i^ossibihty of the one infect- 
ing the other, render of the first imjoortance those points in the 
pathology of tubei'culosis which concern the Meat Inspectoi'. 
It is not advisable in a volume of this kind to report the many 
sharp and lengthy discussions from which have emanated our 
present ideas regarding the duties of a Meat Lispector when 
dealing with a tuberculous carcase. The object will be rather 
to state and explain these ideas, avoiding controversial subjects 
so far as one may in a treatise on meat insi3ection. 

Animals affected.— Although, some species and certain 
individuals of the same species are undouljtedly less susceptible 
to the disease than others, none possess an absolute immunit3\ 
In judging the relative susceptibility of different individuals oi- 
races to tuberculosis, it is difhcult to estimate how much of 
this is due to inherent or acquired conditions of the system, and 
how far opportunity of contracting the disease is responsible 
for the so-called predisposition. By far the gi-eatest factor in 
the spread of tuberculosis is certainly the relative frequency of 
the tubercle bacillus in close proximity to animals. 

Without the bacillus tuberculosis the disease cannot be con- 
ti'acted even by the most weakly animals ; but given its presence 
in a dwelling or in the body of a companion, the strongest is 
not absolutely free from the danger of infection. The disease 
is most frequent in our more domesticated races of cattle, but 
it spreads, though "s^ith less raj^idity, in those living in a more 
natural state of existence, if the bacillus once gains a footing on 
some member of the herd. 

If one may judge from the frequency of occurrence, the 
human species must be placed in the first rank of susceptibility. 

Of the domesticated animals the disease is most prevalent in 
cattle. Cows are much more frequently its ^^ctims than oxen, 
but that is to be attributed largely to the h}gienic conditions 
under which the former live, and to the fact that theii" 
term of life is usually longer. Calves are seldom found to be 
tuberculous at the age when they enter the abattoir. The 
disease is still more infrequent befoi'e that age, notwithstanding 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 8i 

the fact that so large a proportion of cows are affected. Con- 
genital tuberculosis in the calf is rare, rarei' even than tubercle 
of the uterus in the cow, on which it may be safely assumed 
to depend. The truth is that few of the abattoir calves 
have had time to be infected since they saw the hght of day, 
and that the custom w'hich exists in many parts, of removing 
them almost immediately from their mothers, renders the chance 
of inf^ption very small. Sufficiently representative statistics 
to convince one of the rarity of tuberculosis in calves will be 
found below. They are an insurmountable argmiient against 
the theory of hereditary transmission of tuberculosis. There 
are others equally strong, but it would be out of place to discuss 
them here. 

Next to the ox in point of frequency comes the pig, but the 
proportion, of pigs found in the abattoirs to be tuberculous is 
far inferior to that of cattle. 

Tuberculosis in the sheep and goat is very rare in this country, 
so rare that the number affected is negligible. 

In the birds of our farms and covers, tuberculosis is by no 
means uncommon. Indeed, the disease is very prevalent, and 
on some hen-runs its ravages amount almost to a holocaust. 

The following statistics from abattoirs in different parts of 
the world give some idea of the prevalence of tuberculosis in 
the different animals used for human food. 

It is to be remarked, however, that such abattoir statistics 
as are available in this country give a very inadequate idea of 
tlie number of tuberculous cattle. The rules relating to the 
passing of the carcases of tuberculous animals are more stringent 
in some places than in others, and in a great numljer of towns 
there is practically no inspection. This is especially the case 
where private slaughter houses exist. 

It is to the less insi^ected abattoirs that many of the sus- 
pected animals are purposely sent, and the inhabitants of the 
towns concei'iied have themselves to blame for any evil conse- 
quences if they do not compel their city fathers to afford them 
protection by providing adequately qualified Meat Inspectors. 
6 



82 



MEAT INSPECTION 



In Edinburgh, for example, where the inspection is adequate, 
about one hundred cows are sent out weelcly from the byres to 
be sold in the market, and although all are meant for slaughter, 
less than one-fourth of them find their way to the city abattoii*. 
The others are sent away, a goodly number to certain places 
where the inspection is notoiiously inadequate. 



STATISTICS FKOM ABATTOIRS. 

Mr. Eiddoch, M.E.O.V.S., Chief Veterinary Inspector, has 
kindly furnished the Editor with the following statistics of 
animals condemned for tuberculosis in the Edinburgh abattoir 
during the years from 1893-97 : — 



Year. 


Kind of Animal. 


Total Number 
Slaughtered. 


Condemned 

for 
Tuberculosis. 








Per cent. 


1893 


Cattle (exclusive of cows) 


28,261 


•046 


J 


Swine . . - . 


3,809 


•026 


)) 


Calves .... 


6,852 


— 


1894 


Cattle (exclusive of cows) 


28,976 


•034 


jj 


Swine .... 


5,3.35 


•075 


;> 


Calves .... 


7,061 


— 


1895 


Cattle (exclusive of cows) 


30,137 


•046 




Swine .... 


6,248 


•224 


)> 


Calves .... 


6,923 


— 


1896 


Cattle (exclusive of cows) 


30,161 


•073 


jj 


Swine .... 


7,295 


•150 


; = 


Calves .... 


6,224 


— 


1897 


Cattle .... 


29,125 


•410 




Cows .... 


2,162 


4^718 




Calves .... 


5,756 


•017 


„ 


Swine .... 


7,458 


•040 


18981 


Cattle .... 


30,722 


•023 




Cows .... 


1,936 


6^404 


1^ 


Calves .... 


5,371 


•037 


)> 


Swine .... 


6,218 


•064 



1 Taken from report of the Chief Sanitary Inspector. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 83 

Through the kmdness of Dr. Wilhamson, Chief Sanitary 
Inspector, the Editor has been allowed to prepare the following 
statistics from the books of the Edinbui'gh abattoir. They 
deal with the cases of tuberculosis in bovine animals observed 
during the year ending November 1899. 

Out of 1312 cows slaughtered, 129 were condemned on 
account of tuberculosis {i.e. 9 • 5 per cent.). About 2 per cent, 
of th» tuberculous cows are passed for food. This would bring 
the total number of affected cows up to, say 150, or 11-4 per 
cent.i 

Tuberculous lesions were found in the udder in 23 • 3 per 
cent, of the tuberculous cows.^ 

From these numbers it would appear that the proportion 
of dairy cows with tuberculous udders is 2 • 6 per cent, (total 
nimiber examined, 1312), The Editor thinks, however, that 
2-6 per cent, is in excess of the truth— first, because the 
veterinary inspectors are very strict in dealing with suspicious 
cases of udder disease in the city byres ; and, secondly, because 
most of these cases find their way to the city abattoir, as nobody 
will buy them in the market, owing to the apparent disease 
of the udder and their want of condition. A good number 
of the other cows sold in the market go to towns where in- 
spection of meat is less strictly performed. Many of these 
are affected with the disease, although their udders are healthy. 
If they were all slaughtered in Edinburgh the proportion of 
tuberculous udders in tuberculous cows would be less. The 
proportion of tuberculous cows with uterine lesions was 3 ■ 3 
per cent., and it is interesting to know that only one case of 
congenital tuberculosis has been observed during the last five 
years. The average number of calves slaughtered is about 
6000 yearly. The subjoined table shows the distribution of 

^ No record is kept of the tuberculous carcases passed, but, judging from 
experience, the above is a fair estimate of the number of cows. Of course the 
proportion of tuberculous carcases of the young beasts passed will be higher. 

" Most of the doubtful cases were referred to the Editor, who submitted the 
udders to a microscopical examination before pronouncing on the nature of the 
lesion. 



MEAT INSPECTION 



the tuberculous lesions in the various organs of bovine animals ; 
95-2 per cent, of the cases were met with in cows : — 



Per cent. 



Lung 93-4 

Plem-a 80-0 

Bowel and mesenteric glands ^ 65*6 

Peritoneum . 

Liver .... 

Udder of cows 



Spleen capsule 
Pericardium . 
Kidney- 
Uterus of COAVS 
Bones . 
Ovary of cows 

■^ Ulcers were found on bowel in 2'1 per cent, of these 



61-3 
54-0 
23-3 



Per cent. 
21 
5 
5 
3 
1 
1 



The proportion of acute miliary cases was 6 • 5 per cent, of 
the tuberculous. It is interesting to note this, because such 
a small proportion, relatively to the number of udder cases, 
makes it difficult to believe that the mammary gland is in- 
vaded only by way of the blood stream. 

The m-icro&e.— The microbe is a rod-shaped bacillus, measur- 
ing commonly about 3-5 /x x -3. The rods are either straight 
or curved, and they are rounded at their ends. When stained 
they often show a number of clear refractile spaces in their 
protoplasm. They are found among the cells of the tubercle 
or inside the giant cells. Some of them occur singly, others 
are arranged in clumps or rosette form. They can be stained 
well by the Ziehl-Neelson method or by that of Erlich. Gram's 
method is also suitable. It is worth while noting that the 
bacilli are sometimes present in very small numbers in the 
lesion. It may be necessary to mince up a nodule on a slide 
or cut sections of the tissue in order to demonstrate them. 
In a few cases their presence can only be revealed by inocula- 
tion. 

The identity of tuberculosis in man and animals. — A\- 
thouffh Villemin in 1865 demonstrated that tuberculous 
material from men or cows could produce tuberculosis in 
rabbits if inoculated under the skin, it was not until after the 
discovery of the bacillus of Koch that the contagious nature 
of the disease and its identity in human beings and animals 
began to be generally recognised. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 85 

Observations and experiments on animals have now fnr- 
nished us with abundance of evidence to show that tuberculosis 
in mammals arises from one common cause. Although the 
voice of experiment is silent regarding the transmission of 
tuhercmlosis animalis to hiimsin beings, the chapter of accidents 
unfortunately supplies us with plenty of proof that the 
disease can be transmitted ; nobody now doubts it. The 
identit}^ of the avian tubercle bacillus, however, with the 
bacillus of mammalian tuberculosis, remained in dispute after 
the other question had been settled. It has been shown that 
artificial cultures of 
bacilli from the t^^'o 
sources do not present 
an identical appear- 
ance, that birds in the 
majority of cases re- 
sist inoculation with 
tuberculous material 
from mammals, and 
that dogs and guinea- 
pigs are highly resis- 
tent to inoculation 
with material taken Fig. 8.— Tubercle Bacillus, x 1000. 

from tubercular birds. 

In a few cases, however, positive results have been obtained 
in fowls with human tuberculous material, and in guinea-pigs 
with that from the fowl. Moreover, it has been shown by 
Nocard, Cadiot, Gilbert and Eoger, and others, that once avian 
tubercle has been transmitted to the guinea-pig, the disease 
can be inoculated readily enough in series to other animals 
of the same species. The lesions are at first somewhat differ- 
ent to those produced by tuberculous matter of mammalian 
origin, but after a few passages through guinea-pigs the 
resulting lesions become identical. Nocard, again, asserts 
that the horse is as susceptible to avian tuberculosis as to 
mammalian, and he has shown that tubercle bacilli of 







\ 




t ^• 






c* 








<7 


V.' 


\ t 










i 






» 


- ' ' , ^ 




^^ 


? 


% 


^ 


'W 


'^. 



86 ME A T INSPE CTION 

human origin, if they be accustomed to the organism of the 
fowl, take all the characters of the avian type of bacillus. 
Nocard inserted collodion capsules containing cultures of 
human tubercle bacilli into the peritoneal cavities of fowls. 
The capsules serve to protect the microbes from the attacks 
of the phagocytes, but allow a free interchange to go on between 
the fluids of the body and the ai'tificial culture medium. After 
three changes and several months' incubation in the abdominal 
cavity, the bacilli are capable of killing the fowl. There seems 
little doul)t, then, that the avian bacillus is simply a modified 
form of the mammalian microbe. There is only one tuber- 
culosis, but all animals are not alike susceptible of contracting 
the disease from those of another species. 

Z/es-ioiis.— When tubercle bacilli settle in a tissue, they begin 
to multiply. They excite a proliferation in the fixed tissue cells 
of the part, and they attract the leucocytes towards them. 
The result is that the microbes become surrounded by cells, 
which are apparently bent on destroying the invaders. This 
is the commencement of the so-called tubercle, and it first 
makes itself evident to the naked eye as a greyish white 
speck about the size of a millet-seed. Every tubercle, then, 
is a miliary one to start with. 

The tissue cells may triumph over the bacilli and pre- 
vent further mischief, but in a very large number of cases— 
one cannot say in what proportion— the result is not so 
fortunate. 

Usually the miliary tubercle continues to increase in size, 
and bacilli are carried to adjacent parts, where they start 
fresh tubercles. These adjacent tubercles coalesce and the 
growth assumes the proportion of a nodule. During the 
growth of the bacilli they elaborate certain products, some 
of which cause the cells to undergo a cheese-like or caseous 
degeneration. 

The nodules commonly vary in size from a pea to a nut, 
but caseous areas of much greater extent may be formed from 
confluence. The smaller nodules consist of a vellowish centre 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 87 

of caseous material and a firmer greyish iDerii^hery, Avhicli is 
sometimes fibrous. The consistence of the caseous material 
varies from that of thick pus to that of ordinary cheese, but 
the less purulent tubercles are often infiltrated with gritty 
calcareous matter. More rarely the tubercles assume the form 
of small grey fibrous nodules about the size of a hemp-seed. 
The latter form is sometimes seen in the lungs of pigs 
and orxen. The nodules are found throughout the infected 
organ in numbers vai-ying from two or three to many 
hundreds. 

When tuberculous lesions come under the eye of the patho- 
logist, they are acute miliary or chronic nodular in form. By 
acute miliary tuberculosis one understands— first, that the 
tubercles in one or more organs are all of nearly the same 
size, viz. about that of a millet-seed ; secondly, that they are 
equally and densely distributed throughout the organ on the 
course of its capillaries. 

When the lesions have the above distribution, the disease is 
said to be generalised ; that is to say, the bacilli have been in 
the blood stream, and consequently may have reached any 
organ in the body. 

In the chronic or nodular form, the tubercles are not so 
numerous nor so densely packed in the organ. They are of 
dift'erent sizes or ages, and most of them are much larger than 
a millet-seed. 

The microscope shows that in the earlier stages the tubercles 
consist of a few large epithelioid cells which have arisen from 
the fixed tissues, and some leucocytes are present. 

The bacilli are so few that their presence may be overlooked, 
if only one or two sections be examined. About the tenth day, 
giant cells appear in the growth. These are large multi- 
nucleated cells. They have a homogeneous yellowish-looking 
centre and several nuclei towards the periphery. The giant 
cells are supposed to arise from fusion of several contiguous 
small cells, or from repeated division of the nucleus of one cell 
without a corresponding separation of the cell protoplasm. 



8 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

In tlie older tubercles the giant cells are more numerous, 
yellow structureless jDatclies of caseous material are seen, and 
a greater number of bacilli are present. Fibrous tissue may 
be seen forming at tlie margin of the tubercle, or it may be 
completely encapsuled in a fibrous shell and infiltrated with 
salts. 




Fig. 9. — Tuberculous nodule iu lung of cow (Reicliert, 
obj. 3). The lung tissue around tlie nodule is 
emphysematous. 

When the preparation is suitably stained, the bacilli are seen 
singly or in clumjDS between the cells and inside the giant 
cells. 

The above may be described as the typical appearance, if 
such an adjective can be applied to the structure of a tubercle. 

More rarely the giant cells are absent from a tubercle, and 
the bacilli may be so few that very laborious searching with 
the mici'oscope is necessary to find them. The amount of 
fibrous tissue in the latter cases is generally great ; there may 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 89 

be caseous centi-es in the still cellular parts, or degeneration 
may be absent. 

In the tuberculous lesions of the fowl giant cells are absent. 

Pathognomonic character of the ^esioTis. — Strictly speaking, 
the only specific components of the tubercle are the bacilli. 
They may, however, be too few in number to be revealed by 
the microscope, and inoculation to animals would but little 
serve-the purpose of the Meat Inspector. 

In the absence of the bacillus, then, it is important to know 
what weight can be attached to the histological structure of 
the tubercle. 

Martin has shown that materials other than tubercle bacilli, 
such as cheese, pepper, lycopodium seeds, cantharides, and 
mercury give rise to a similar formation when introduced 
experimentally into the tissues. Dead tubercle bacilli produce 
the same effect. Again, the embryos of the Strongylus rufescens 
give rise to somewhat similar tubercles in the lungs of sheep 
and goats. 

In the lungs of pigs we meet with the same kind of lesions 
caused by the embryos of S. paradoxus. 

What is to guide us, then, in forming an opinion of the 
character of the tubercle when the bacillus cannot be found ? 
There are several points of great importance in this respect, 
viz. : — 

1. None of the other bodies produce caseation to the same 
extent as living tubercle bacilli. 

2. The true tubercle is a progressive lesion, whereas the 
pseudotubercle remains local. 

3. The species of the animal under examination ; true 
tuberculosis is rare in the sheep and goat. 

4. The absence of other parasites capable of exciting the 
same kind of growth. The latter are chiefly the actinomyces 
in the ox and pig, the glanders bacillus in the horse, and the 
before-mentioned animal embryos in the sheep, pig, and goat. 

Practically there is small chance of error when dealing with 
the ox and sheep, in this country at least. In the ox about 



90 MEAT INSPECTION 

99 per cent, of tuberculous-looking lesions in tlie internal organs 
will be found due to tlie tubercle bacillus. In the sheep and 
goat an even larger proportion of the lung tubercles are caused 
by parasitic embryos. 

Other important points in the differential diagnosis will be 
more easily dealt with when considering the disease in the 
different organs, and in the chapters upon other diseases with 
similar lesions. 

Tuherculosis in the different organs and the paths of in- 
fection.— Vrimavy infection takes place in the majority of cases 
by way of the respiratory or alimentary tracts. The difficulty 
of experimentally infecting animals by causing them to ingest 
tuberculous material is well known. The gastric juice destroys 
many of the bacilli before they can pass to the tissues. Never- 
theless, positive results can be obtained by using large quantities, 
and cases of natural infection by way of the alimentary tract 
are too nmuerous to allow one to make light of this mode of 
incursion. The possibility of infection by subcutaneous inocu- 
lation, by way of the teats in the cow, and Ijy the urino-genital 
tract, is undoubted, but the bacilli seldom enter the body of 
those paths. The primary lesions, then, will be found mostly 
in the respiratory and alimentary tracts or in the glands which 
are in direct communication with them, for some post-mortem 
examinations leave a strong impression that tubercle bacilli 
may enter an organ such as the lung, and pass to the glands, 
without giving rise to any preliminary lesion of the organ they 
first came in contact with. That, at least, is the only feasible 
explanation one can give of such primary lesions as we find in 
the bronchial, mediastinal, and pharyngeal glands. In cases 
of congenital tuberculosis, however, the primary lesions are 
found in the liver or in the retrohepatic glands. Once the 
tubercle bacillus has gained a decided footing in a tissue, it by 
degrees infects neighbouring parts, and the related Imyph 
glands are generally invaded in a comparatively short time. 
The tissues react to the presence of the bacilli by throwing 
around them a cordon of cells, which for a time impedes their 




Plate iv. 



Miliary Tubercle of Pleura, 
Piece of lung— external view— with the grape-like masses of Miliary Tubercle, 
connected together by fibrinous bands. ' 




Position of Inferior Border of Lung of Cow, showing— 
a. a. a. SessUe Masses on the surface of the h. h. b. Pedunculated Masses growing from 

Pleura. the Pleura at the extreme bor- 

der — Dr. Crichton's festoons. 




Lymphatic Gland (Bronchial) of Cow, laid open to show the deposition of caseous and calcareous 
Tubercle in its interior — mainly at its hilum — with detached smaller masses. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 91 

further advance. In a time, however, commensurate with 
the activity of the bacilh and the resistance of the organism to 
it, the barrier is cleared, and fresh areas are invaded. 

Suppose the bacilh to have established themselves on some 
lymph gland, they are arrested for such a time as the cells hold 
out, then they pass on and on until the last barrier which 
separates them from the main veins is cleared. Once in the 
veins, "they pass through the right heart and commence their 
pererration of the organs. The foregoing is probably the usual 
manner of generalisation, but there are other possibilities. A 
tubercle in the lung might penetrate a branch of the pulmonai'y 
veins and pour its bacilli into the left auricle (M'Fadyean), or a 
similar accident might happen to a vessel more remote from 
the heart. It is probable that an occasional bacillus will be 
carried into the circulation by the leucocytes, but it is also prob- 
able that in such small numbers they are not likely to give 
rise to distinct lesions. In any case, we need not fear a true 
blood stream contamination by this method. Given the 
bacilli in the right heart, it does not follow that they will take 
up their abode in every organ of the body. The majority of 
them are arrested in the capillary filter of the lungs, a com- 
paratively small number passing through to the left heart. It 
is almost inconceivable that the microbes, when they reach the 
arterial circulation in considerable numbers, do not enter most 
of the organs, but for reasons ill understood they show little 
tendency to form a permanent settlement in some of them. 
It may be that the vessels of certain organs are less able to retain 
the microbes, that they have been arrested in too small numbers 
to produce a distinct lesion, or less probably, that they have 
found a soil unsuitable for their development. Be this as it 
may, the recent researches of M'Fadyean show clearly that 
in experimentally generalised cases of tuberculosis of the ox, 
even when very large numbers of bacilli are inoculated, well- 
marked acute miliary lesions may Ije present in the lungs, 
while other organs, such as the spleen, liver, and kidney, may 
not even show microscopic tubercles. Moreover, it is a notorious 



92 MEAT INSPECTION 

fact that the muscles are quite exceptionally the seats of tuber- 
culous lesions, although they are often invaded by bacilli.^ 

The foregoing remarks are important to bear in mind when 
the inspector has to decide whether generalisation has taken 
place or not, but they are not to be interpreted as meaning 
that there would be no risk in eating the organs from a general- 
ised case, although these may show neither macroscopical nor 
microscopical lesions. Inoculation experiments on animals 
with the juice expressed from such organs have given many 
positive results, hence a certain amount of risk must be ad- 
mitted, whatever be its degree. 

The order in which the bacilli from a certain stai'ting-point 
invade the different organs is of cardinal importance to the in- 
spector. Unfortunately, however, the succession of events in one 
species can only be applied to others in a general sense, and this 
problem has not been the subject of the same amount of experi- 
mental investigation in all. Particularly is this the case in the 
larger animals, whose price has prevented them from figuring 
largely in experimental pathology. In the absence of the more 
positive information which one acquires from a large series of 
experiments designed with the above object in view, much of 
our information regarding the progression of the lesions has 
been gathered from post-mortem examinations of natural cases. 
Where it is jDossible to form an opinion of the relative ages of 
the lesions in two or more organs, we may correlate our ideas 
and obtain fairly exact information regarding the order and 
manner of invasion. A careful consideration of the experi- 
mental information available will further assist us in coming 
to a conclusion. 

Arloing, and more recently Delepine, have traced the pro- 
gress of experimentally produced lesions in the guinea-pig. 
If a guinea-pig be inoculated in the thigh with tuberculous 
material, the lesion spreads unilaterally to the inguinal glands, 

^ The Editor has on one occasion examined a cover-glass jireparation of nrascle 
juice, in whicli tubercle bacilli were abundantly present. This, however, is 
quite exceptional-. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 93 

then to the sublumbar lymphatic ganglia, next to the spleen 
and retrohepatic glands, from there to the hver, and next to 
the bronchial glands and lungs. Once the diaphragm is passed, 
the lesion no longer spreads in a unilateral manner. The 
bronchial glands and the lungs are affected, and the other 
glands on both sides of the body become tuberculous. The 
infection spreads later to the glands below the diaphragm 
on ths side opposite to that inoculated. When the primary 
infection takes place at an anterior extremity (the base of 
an ear), the lesions follow a similar course in the opposite 
direction . 

There would be a risk of error in applying m toto to other 
animals what takes place in the guinea-pig, since the lesions do 
not follow the same course in the rabbit. Moreover, there are 
some jDoints regarding this manner of progression which require 
to be cleared up before drawing too sweeping deductions from 
it. It would be useless, however, to discuss these at present, 
but apparently the infection may spread along the lymphatic 
system in what seems to be a backward direction, according to 
our ideas of the direction taken by the lymph stream. 

The experiments of G. Colin, performed on young oxen 
before those of Arloing on guinea-pigs, show that the course 
of invasion is much the same in the former animals as in the 
latter. 

This chapter would hardly be complete without referring 
to the methods whereby the different organs may become 
secondarily infected. For convenience, the anatomical changes 
in each, in so far as they vary from the usual, will be described 
at the same time. To save repetition, the reader is referred 
to the description of the typical tubercle already given. He 
is reminded that any organ may be invaded by its blood supply 
and show the acute miliary lesion. 

Blood.— The bacilh do not remain long in the blood, they 
are soon filtered off by the various capillary networks. The 
researches of Nocard, M'Fadyean, and Leclainche show that 
the blood loses its virulence in from four to twenty-four hours. 



94 ME A T INSPE CTION 

Tlie later experiments of MTadyean, however, sliow that it 
may become virulent again owing to a fresh eruption of bacilli. 
It is impossible to establish the virulence of the blood except 
by inoculation. 

The larynx, trachea, and lungs.— The larynx anid trachea 
are probably infected by mucus from a diseased lung. They 
show ulcers on the mucous membrane. Notwithstanding the 
frequency of pulmonarj^ lesions, the trachea and larynx are 
seldom affected with tuberculosis. 

The lungs may be infected primarily by way of the bronchial 
tubes. Thev mav also be invaded in a backward direction 




Fig. 10. — Section of lung, showing miliary tuberculosis 
(nat. size). — M'Fadyean. 

from the bronchial glands. A healthy part of the organ may 
be infected from a diseased part by way of the lymphatics or 
by contaminated mucus passing into its bronchial tubes and 
alveoli. 

The most common form of lesion is a tuberculous broncho- 
pneumonia. A variable number of caseous nodules are found 
in the parenchyma, or quite a large tract may be converted 
into a cheesy mass. Sometimes in the pig, less frequently 
in the ox, the tubercles are grey and fibrous, showing little 
tendency to become caseous. 

An acute mihary lesion may have supervened on a chronic 
one. It is in the lungs that one finds the most distinct embolic 



Plate vil. 




Photograph of Abdominal and Thoracic surface of the Carcase of a Cow, 
showing diffuse Nodular Tuberculosis of the Pleura and Peritoneum. 

a. a. Section through Dorsal Vertebrae. 

b. b. Parietal Pleurae. The dark spots representing the Tuberculous Nodules. 

c. c. Peritoneum with Tubercular Nodules. 

d. d. Kidney Fat. 
e. Flank. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 95 

lesions, as, owing to their situation and vascular arrangements, 
they can hardly escape when bacilli get into the circulation. 
It is in the lung that one looks for evidence of generalisation 
having taken place. It is conceivable, however, that one may 
meet with cases in which generalisation has taken place so 
recently that the disseminated embolic lesions are not evident 
to the naked ej^e. 

T^e Editor has met with several cases of advanced tuber- 
culosis in which all the signs of multiple embolism, congestion 
of large capillary areas, and shght oedema of the lung tissue, 
were present. Such an appearance should be looked on with 
suspicion. 

Lymphatic glands.— The different glands of the body are 
infected usually by the lymph stream from other glands in line 
with them or from affected organs drained by them. Atten- 
tion has already been drawn to the possibility of the infection 
operating by the Imyph paths in what is apparently a back- 
ward or centrifugal direction. For example, the pharvngeal 
and submaxillary glands may be infected by material taken in 
by the mouth or by mucus expectorated from a diseased lung, 
and a primary lesion in the pharyngeals may spread to the 
prescapular, prejoectoral, and othei" glands of the part, or they 
may be all ultimately infected backwards from the pleura. 
The glands in the abdomen may be infected from the intestine 
or from the inguinal glands in a few exceptional cases outside 
those induced by experimental inoculation. Apparently, hoAv- 
ever, the former may in a backward direction infect the latter 
and the supramammary glands. 

At first the gland becomes swollen and oedematous, and it 
may be in this condition for some time before macroscopical 
tubercles can be seen. Swelling and oedema of a lymph gland 
must always be regarded as suspicious in a tuberculous carcase. 
In the ox and pig the tubercles in the glands are often 
calcified. 

Pleura.— The pleura may be infected from the glands of 
the chest or bv direct extension from the lung itself. Once the 



96 MEAT INSPECTION 

disease is started in one part of the membrane, the bacilli may 
be carried to other parts by the lymph stream. 

In the earliest stages a red slimy exudate covers the part 
and sometimes agglutinates the lobes or surfaces (false mem- 
brane). Distinct yellowish-looking tubercles appear at a later 
stage, and a good deal of new fibrous tissue is formed, which 
unites many of the nodules into one mass. In this way tuber- 
culous masses of several inches thick may arise on the pleurse. 
These formations are greyish in colour, moist looking, and 
when incised show numerous caseous and calcified centres. 

Heart, pericardium, and vessels.— The pericardium is in- 
fected from the pleura or bronchial glands. Prom the parietal 
layer the disease may spread to the visceral and thence to the 
heart wall. 

The Editor has recorded a case of tuberculous myocarditis 
in a cow, in which the parietal and outer surface of the visceral 
pericardium were healthy. 

The lesions in the membrane are like those found on the 
pleura. 

The heart muscle is invaded generally from without inwards. 
The muscular tissue is replaced by caseous nodules. In the 
above case recorded by the Editor, the walls of both auricles 
and ventricles were almost completely converted into a caseous 
and calcareous mass. The uninvaded tissue was represented 
by a strip measuring half an inch in breadth. The organ 
weighed 47 lbs. Tubercle of the heart wall, however, is not 
common. 

Cases of tuberculosis in the larger vessels have been recorded. 
The Editor has met with it at the seat of experimental inocula- 
tion into the veins. 

Liver.— The disease may spread from the peritoneal covering 
to the substance of the organ, but usually the tubercles do not 
extend very deeply in such cases. The organ may also be in- 
fected from the retrohepatic glands and by way of the portal 
blood from the spleen and intestines, when tubercles in these 
parts have penetrated a portal branch. In the foetus the liver 



Plate v: 




External Surface of a Lobe of the Liver of a Hen, showing 
lesions of Tuberculosis. 

a. Distended Capillaries of its Capsule. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 97 

may be infected by way of the umbilical vein, which passes 
through the organ. 

The organ shows tubercles of various sizes, which in 
the ox and pig are often very caseous. In the ox one 
sometimes finds the lesion in the form of an abscess, con- 
taining a fluid greenish pus and surrounded by a thin 
fibrous capsule. All such abscesses in the liver, of course, 
are not tuberculous, but the Editor has satisfied himself 
that many of them are. Cirrhosis sometimes accompanies 
the tuberculous lesions. 

In the pig one may meet with a lesion of lymphatic origin 
so disseminated that it is veiw like an acute miliary tuberculosis. 
The tubercles, however, are of different agfes. In tuberculous 
fowls the liver is almost always the seat of lesions. The tubercles 
vary in size from a pin head to a pea. They are often very 
caseous, but commonly enough the small ones are quite fibrous 
in consistence, easily enucleated, and difficult to break up. 
Amyloid matei'ial is often present at the margin of the tubercle 
in the fowl. 

Spleen.— The spleen may be invaded from its lymphatic 
glands or from its peritoneal covering. Although tuberculous 
lesions on the peritoneal covering are not rare in the ox, the 
substance of the organ is seldom the seat of tubercles. The 
rarity of splenic lesions might almost be called a feature of 
tuberculosis in the ox. Even in generalised cases, macroscopic 
lesion are seldom found in the spleens of oxen. 

In the pig, fowl, and horse, on the contrary, splenic lesions 
are common, and, from what has been said regarding infection, 
it follows that the organ may be invaded by other paths than 
its blood vessels. 

The organ is enlarged. The lesion in the pig and horse 
may assume one of two forms. In the one form the tubercles 
show themselves as conical nodules, about the size of a marble, 
under the capsule. These nodules may be quite caseous or 
hard, and almost filarous. In the latter case they are abruptly 
separated from the healthy tissue. In the other form the 
7 



9 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

lesion is more diffuse, a good deal of new tissue is formed, and 
in this the tubercles are found. 

Tuberculous nodules, sometimes of large size, are found 
in the spleen of the fowl. Usually they are fibrous and difficult 
to break down. 

The stomach and intestines. — Infection of the stomach 
sometimes occurs when large numbers of bacilli are swallowed. 
This takes j)lace when the mucus, laden with bacilli from a 
diseased lung, is expectorated into the pharynx and swallowed. 
As one might expect, tuberculous lesions on the mucous mem- 
brane are rarely met with. M'Fadyean records a case of tuber- 
culous ulceration of the rumen, and one where the ulcers were 
on the mucous meinbrane of the aboinasum in the cow. The 
Editor has met with one case of tubercle of the abomasum 
in the cow. No ulcers were present, but about half a dozen 
fibrous nodules the size of a swan-shot were found under the 
mucous membrane. Tubercle bacilli were found between the 
fibres. 

The intestines are infected by bacilli that have escajDed the 
gastric juice. These bacilli have in cattle usually come from 
the lungs, but they may have been taken in from outside 
sources with the food ; they may pass to the glands without 
provoking a lesion in the bowel. The lesions, when present, 
consist of tuberculous ulcers most commonly found at the level 
of Peyer's patches. 

In the fowl the bowel is often the seat of tuberculous ulcers 
or nodules. 

Peritoneum, mesentery, and omentum.— The peritoneum 
is infected from the bowel, from the mesenteric glands, or 
through the diaphragm from the pleura by the lymph vessels. 
According to M'Fadyean, the infection almost invariably takes 
place by one of the lymph paths. 

The lesion is very like that on the pleura, and the same may 
be said of the mesentery and omentum. 

Kidney.— Tuberculosis of the kidney is not common. In- 
fection takes place by the lymph or blood streams, 



Plate vi 




Coils of Intestines of a Hen, showing — 

a. a. a. a. Sessile tubercular nodules in the Intestinal Walla. 
b. A large pedunculated Tubercular Nodule, 
c. c. c. Intestines. 
-d. d. d. Mesentery and Mesenteric Pat.. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 99 

In the ox one usually finds a large tuberculous nodule 
surrounded by fibrous tissues in one or two nodules. More 
rarely the lesion is acute miliary in character. 

Uterus.— The uterus is infected also from the peritoneum 
by way of the lymi^h vessels, or possibly by the Fallopian tubes. 
The lesions are found in the horns or over the whole organ. 
They consist of caseous ulceration of the mucous membrane 
and -fibrous thickening. 

Ovary.— The ovary may be infected from the peritoneum. 
The organ is enlarged, fibrous, and shows the usual tubercles. 

Testicles.— The testicles are seldom tuberculous. They 
may be invaded from the peritoneum or by way of the blood 
stream. 

Mammary gland.— This organ is invaded by bacilli in the 
blood stream, or by those that have travelled along the lymph 
vessels from the supramammary lymph glands. It is possible 
that the gland may in exceptional cases be invaded by way of 
the teat. 

In the case of an embolic invasion, tubercles are scattered 
through the organ ; but one does not expect to see so dense a 
crop of them as one finds in the lung, because the greater 
part of the bacilli have been removed from the blood by the 
latter organ. 

Frequently only one quarter is the seat of disease, but all 
four may show tubercles. In the early stages the affected 
quarters are swollen ; latterly they become much enlarged and 
fibrous. Distinct tubercles are usually found in the organ, 
but in a considerable proportion of cases the naked eye appear- 
ances are calculated to mislead the uninitiated. 

In one form the acini seem to be plugged with yellow clots 
in certain areas. This appearance might be passed over as 
acute non-tuberculous mammitis, which it resembles. In the 
latter, however, the clots are whiter ; they are, in fact, coagul- 
ated milk. To be certain in these cases it is necessary to 
examine cover-glass preparations properly stained. In another 
form the chief alteration to the naked eye is cirrhosis of the 



loo MEAT INSPECTION 

gland. The Editor lias met with, several cases of chronic 
interstitial mammitis, which would have been passed over as 
non-tuberculous had a microscopical examination not been 
made. 

Nerve centres.— They are very seldom the seat of tuber- 




FiG. 11. — Microscopical section of ca cow's udder affected 
with chronic tuberculosis (Reiche.rt, obj. 3). Tuber- 
culous elements and fibrous tissue have replaced the 
normal glandular tissue. 



culous lesions. The cord and its meninges may be invaded 
from a tuberculous vertebra. 

The brain, according to M'Fadyean, is most likely to be 
invaded from diseased glands at the base of the skull. 

The lesions take the form of a mihary ei'uption on the 
piamater, or of caseous tuberculous masses in the substance. 

Bones.— Tuberculosis in bones is not common in the 
lower animals. They are probably invaded mostly by the 



BACTERIAL DISEASES loi 

lympli stream oi' fi'om neighbouring lymph glands by con- 
tiguity. 

The bones most commonly affected are the vertebrae and 
the ribs. The Editor has met with it in the submaxilla of 
the ox. 

In the vertebrae the lesion is in the form of a tuberculous 
caries. The jawbone becomes swollen, softened, and necrotic. 

Muscle.— The muscles are often invaded by tubercle bacilli 




Fig. 12. — Tubt:i-culuus vertttbra. — M'Fauyean. 

entering through their blood vessels, but muscular lesions ai'e 
of the rarest. Probably when lesions occur, the bacilli have 
travelled backwards from the nearest lymph glands, when the 
latter are in a state of advanced tuberculosis. 

In two cases of muscular tuberculosis in the pig— one in 
the arm, the other in the hip — observed by the Editor, the 
glands draining the muscles were almost completely, caseous. 

The lesion takes the form of a chronic interstitial myositis. 
The section is rather like that of a mammary gland aft'ected 
with cirrhosis. Pale yellow centres, many of them calcified 
and surrounded by a fibrous ring, are seen in the muscle. 



I02 MEAT INSPECTION 

One or two cases of tuberculosis have been recorded in the 
tongue of the ox. The lesion may be either limited or dissemin- 
ated. The organ is probably invaded by its lymph stream; 
local inoculation appears improbable. One or two hard fibrous 
nodules are found in the substance, or there may be a consider- 
able number. The superficial ones become ulcerated, and 
there may be a great deal of new tissue formed in the organ. 
The lesion, especially in the disseminated form, is very like 




Fig. 13. — Muscular tuberculosis in the hind 
quarter of a pig. — V. 

that of actinomycosis. A microscopic examination is necessary 
to establish the diagnosis. 

Skin.— In animals the skin seldom shows tuberculous 
lesions. Probably it is infected in every case by local inocula- 
tion. Sometimes tuberc^^lous fibrous tumours are found 
under the skin of the ox. 

The Editor has met with several cases of cutaneous tuber- 
culosis in the subtarsal and subcarpal regions of the ox. One 
or more hmbs may be afTected, usually the fore ones ; only in 
one case were all four diseased. 

The lesion extends from the pit of the heel to just below 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 10*3 

tlie carpus or tarsus. Tlie subcutaneous tissue is much in- 
creased, and there may or may not be abscesses on the course 
of the swelhng. 

Tlie dancjcr arising from the ingestion of tubercle-infected 
butcher meat.— Long before the discovery of the tubercle 
bacillus— as far back as 1839— Malin reported cases of infection 
in dogs by way of the alimentary tract. The subject, however, 
received little considei'ation until nearly thirty yeai's later, 
when the woi'k of Chauveau and that of Gerlach appeared. 
The lai'ge numbei' of confirmatory experiments and the ob- 
servations since collected make it impossible to doubt that 
tuberculosis can be contracted by ingestion of infected tissue. 
Ingestion, however, is not the easiest method of infecting an 
animal with tuberculosis. In the majority of cases a large 
number of bacilh must be swallowed before a positive result 
is obtained. That the bacilli can penetrate by way of the 
buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane seems certain. 
'It has already been mentioned that tuberculous lesions on 
the gastric mucous membrane are rare, but as they are not 
unknown, one must admit the possibihty of invasion by way 
of the stomach. Straus and Wurtz showed that tubercle bacilli 
resist the action of the gastric juice for eighteen hours. Stern 
has demonstrated that the intestinal juices have no effect on 
them. 

Apart from the experimental evidence, which has already 
been referred to, the number of cases of natural infection in 
which bowel lesions are present prove beyond doubt that under 
certain circumstances penetration by way of the intestinal 
mucous membrane is not difficult. As already mentioned, 
a relatively large number of bacilU are necessary to experi- 
mentally infect healthy animals by this method ; Imt it seems 
probable that, if the mucous membrane be not intact, a smaller 
quantity would suffice. 

Since the possibility of infection by ingestion is undeniable, 
the important question to the Meat Inspector conies to be, 
under what circumstances do the conditions obtain which 



I04 MEAT INSPECTION 

ai'e likely to render meat dangerous ? This question has 
already been dealt with in great part in the paragraphs on 
infection of the organs. It remains only to indicate what 
experiment has taught us regarding the extent of the danger. 
It is unnecessary to describe in detail the i-esults obtained by 
the large number of experimenters who have investigated 
this subject. The plan of operation has been the same in all. 

Animals have been fed on flesh from tuberculous car- 
cases, or inoculated with the juice expressed from the muscles. 
In those cases in which the experimenters were careful to 
avoid all chance of the juice oi- flesh being contaminated from 
outside sources, the number of positive results obtained with 
ox flesh is exceedingly small, notwithstanding the fact that in 
many cases the carcases supplying the material for experiment 
were those of animals affected with generalised tuberculosis. 
Nocard and MTadyean have both shown that the bacilli dis- 
appear from the muscles in a very short time after a large 
number of bacilli have been injected into the blood stream.* 
The second series of expeiiments by Kastner call for remark, 
for he obtained twelve positive results out of fourteen guinea- 
pigs. Kastner, however, does not say that the cases from 
which he obtained the flesh were not those of generalised 
tuberculosis, nor does he mention the regions of the bod}'' 
which supplied the muscle. He says that the flesh used was 
from confiscated carcases. 

Nobody desires to pass for food the flesh of generalised 
cases, but in localised cases the region experimented with is 
worthy of consideration. It is unlikely that any one who has 
followed the recent work on this subject will deny the pro- 
bability of the bacilli being in the muscles in the neighbourhood 
of localised lesions, especially if the latter be in the glands. 
Thus Galtier found that in a tuberculous cow muscle from 
the thigh was non-virulent, while that from the shoulder 
gave a j)ositive result. Veyssiere and Humbert obtained two 
positive results with the psoae. muscles of a tuberculous cow ; 
Ijut every one knows that the glands in the lumbar region are 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 105 

often diseased. In a case of tuberculosis of the pig, in which 
the anterior glands and some of the muscles of one fore-limb 
showed marked lesions, the Editor failed to obtain a positive 
result in four guinea-pigs inoculated with juice expressed 
from the muscles of the hind quarters. The experiments 
performed with the flesh of animals other than the ox are 
much fewer in number, but the proportion of positive results 
hasjoeen larger. 

Working with the flesh of the sheep (generalised case) 
Gerlach obtained two positive results in two pigs experimented 
on by the ingestion method. 

By inoculating the muscle-juice of the pig to two r ability 
Toussaint obtained two positive results, Gunther and Harms 
two positive results with four rabbits, and Gerlach two positive 
out of four rabbits inoculated. 

Peuch had three positive results wath three rabbits inocul- 
ated with the muscle- juice of a fowl dead of tuberculosis. 

iTispecfiou.— There are no uniform rules regarding the 
inspection of tuberculous carcases in this counfay. It is evident, 
however, that any procedure adopted by Meat Inspectors must 
be based on a comprehensive knowledge of the pathology of 
the disease. In the foregoing sections the pathological points 
of interest to the inspector have been dealt with. It remains 
now to point out a line of procedure deduced from them. 

All authorities agree in condenming affected organs, lesions, 
and emaciated carcases, whatever be the degree of tuberculosis. 
The other cases that one seeks to exclude from consumption 
are— (1) those in which generalisation has taken place, for 
the muscles may then be assumed to contain bacilli ; (2) those 
in which the glands embedded in the muscles are invaded, 
although the tuberculosis is still local . The difference of opinion 
comes in when we have to determine what constitutes evidence 
of generalisation, and under what circumstances the glands 
of a given region may contain the bacilli, because it has already 
been explained that they may do so without showing any 
macroscopic tubercles. 



io6 MEAT INSPECTION 

Signs of generalisation. — In the ox, generalisation is not 
common ; it occurs more frequently in pigs, and it is always 
secondary to a local lesion. 

When an acute miliary lesion is present in any organ, unless 
it be in the liver only, generalisation may be assumed to have 
taken place. To the inspector the important point about 
generalisation is, of course, that the bacilli are likely to be in 
the muscles and their glands. When the bacilli enter a vein 
or small artery, they go to the right heart and thence to the 
lungs, where most of them are I'etained. One could imagine 
that, when an artery is penetrated, the bacilli might be arrested 
in its capillary branches and give rise to embolic lesions in the 
organ supplied. In the latter case, however, the most im- 
portant result of contamination of the blood stream— the 
presence of bacilli in the muscular system— does not follow. 
As a matter of fact, an analogous condition may be produced 
in the liver, when bacilli enter a branch of the portal vein. 

True generalisation, then, means that the baccilli have in 
one of the ways before mentioned passed in and out of the 
left heart. One or two cases are reported where tubercles 
were found on the aorta. The blood stream might, of course, 
be contaminated from such lesions. 

The evidence of post-mortem examinations goes to show- 
that in the majority of cases, at least, the bacilli which reach 
the left heart do so by passing through the pulmonary capil- 
laries. Since a large number are retained in the lung, it is 
that organ which furnishes us with the most constant proof 
of generalisation. 

The task of the inspector is more difficult when dealing 
with carcases which are in the second categoi-y ; that is, Avhen 
he has to determine in a case of localised tuberculosis whethei- 
the glands of this or that part are likely to contain bacilli. 
It is out of the question to expect to have a corps of inspectors 
sufficiently large to make a searching examination of all the 
glands in the neighbourhood of tuberculous lesions. One 
nmst try rather to proceed along the lines of a fair and practic- 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 107 

able compromise, but the benefit of a doubt must always be 
accorded to the consumer. Under a system of this kind, a 
good deal of harmless flesh will be withdrawn from consump- 
tion, but the expense of inspecting it minutely would amount 
to more than the value of the meat. 

From what has been said regarding infection of the different 
organs and the progression of the lesion, it follows that tubercle 
majispread from the peritoneum to the subluinbar and inguinal 
glands. Tuberculosis of the peritoneum, then, will entail 
seizure of the carcase posterior to, and including the diaphragm. 
When tuberculous lesions exist on the pleura or in the anterior 
glands, the fore-part of the carcase, including the diaj)hragm, 
Avill be condemned. 

The last Royal Commission on Tuberculosis, in their report 
published in 1898, issued the follow^ing recommendations 
regarding the carcases of tuberculous animals : — 

" C— TUBERCULOSIS IN ANIMALS INTENDED FOE FOOD. 

" 6. We recommend that the Local Government Board be empowered to issue 
instructions from time to time for the guidance of Meat Inspectors, prescribing 
the degree of tubercular disease which, in the opinion of the Board, should cause 
a carcase, or part thereof, to be seized. 

"Pending the issue of such instructions, we are of opinion that the following 
principles should be observed in the inspection of tuberculous carcases of cattle : — 



" (rt) When there is miliary tuberculosis of both lungs . ' 
"(6) When tuberculous lesions are present on the 

pleura and peritoneum .... 
"(c) When tuberculous lesions are present in the 

muscular system, or in the lymphatic glands 

embedded in or between the muscles . 
" [d) When tuberculous lesions exist in any part of 

an emaciated carcase 

"(a) When the lesions are confined to the lungs and 

the thoracic lymphatic glands . 
" (6) When the lesions are confined to the liver 
" (c) When the lesions are confined to the pharyngeal 

lymphatic glands .... 

" {d) When the lesions are confined to any combination 

of the foregoing, but are collectively small in 

extent . . . • • • / 



The entire carcase 
> and all the organs 
may be seized. 



The carcase, if 
otherwise healthy, 
shall not be con- 
demned, but every 
part of it contain- 
ing tuberculous 
lesions shall be 
seized. 



io8 MEAT INSPECTION 

" In view of the greater tendency to generalisation of tuberculosis in the 
pig, we consider that the presence of tubercular deposit in any degree should 
involve seizure of the whole carcase and of the organs. 

"In respect of foreign dead meat, seizure shall ensue in every case where 
the pleurae have been 'stripped.' " 

These recommendations, if adopted, are calculated to reduce 
to tlie vanishing-point any risk which peoj^le run of contract- 
ing tuberculosis from eating the flesh of tul^erculous animals. 
They will also considerably lessen the hardship inflicted on the 
butcher in those places whei'e the inspection resolves itself 
practically into total seizure. In the present state of our know- 
ledge it would be hardly possible to issue instructions much 
less general in character, but if the inspector l^e a properly 
qualified man, with a knowledge of jmthology, he will have 
little difficulty in applying them rationally. 

No part of the stomach or intestines should be passed for 
the manufacture of tripe, haggis, or sausages, when lesions exist 
on the abdominal organs. 

The Editor has on one occasion found a tuberculous thicken- 
ing on a piece of dressed trijDe. 

Inspectors should impress on butchers the necessity of 
cleansing their knives which have been employed to cut lesions, 
before they again use them for dressing purposes. 



BACTERIAL PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS 

The name is applied to more than one bacterial disease in 
which the lesions somewhat resemble those of tuberculosis. 
The bacterial pseudotuberculoses are seldom met with in the 
abattoirs of this country. 

Animals affected. — Since 1883, when Malassez and Vignal 
first described a pseudotuberculosis — tvherculose zoogloeique— 
which they produced experimentally in animals by inoculating 
a microbe obtained from a nodule on the arm of a child, 
many others have described similar diseases in the different 
animals. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 109 

It has been recorded in man, the hare, rabbit, sheep, horse, 
cow, and calf. Nocard described similar lesions in the fowl, 
but in a later paper he showed that the fowl was refractory 
to inoculation with the ordinary pseudotuberculosis cultures. 
The Editor is able to confirm the latter statement from personal 
experience. The disease is sometimes met with in cage-birds 
and in pigeons. The several investigators who have made 
a caniparative study of the pseudotuberculosis described by 
different authors, have concluded that the majority are due 
to the same microbe— a streptobacillus. 




Fig. 14.— Bacillus of pseudotuberculosis. xlOOO.— R. M. | 

From lesions resembling those of tuberculosis on the pleura 
of an ox, Courmont isolated a bacillus somewhat different from 
the others, which could give rise to characteristic tubercles 
when inoculated to rabbits and guinea-pigs. 

Preiz and Guinard described a pseudotuberculosis in a sheep, 
which Nocard showed to be due to the bacillus described by him 
as the cause of " la lymphangite pseudofarcineuse." Cherry 
and Bull have recently described a pseudotuberculosis in sheep 
in Australia. They say that in some flocks as many as from 



no MEAT INSPECTION 

15 to 70 per cent, of tlie animals are affected. The lesions are 
found chiefly in the glands. Cherry and Bull seem to think 
that they have investigated the same disease as Preiz. 

Vallee has reported another form which attacked calves 
aged from eight to fifteen days. In the latter disease the lesions 
were confined to the liver, and may possibly have been of um- 
bilical origin. 

The microbes.— The streptobacillus is a small oval rod measur- 
ing 1 X • 3 /A. The elements are arranged in chains or zoogloea 
masses. It can be stained by the methyl-blue preparations. 

The bacillus of Courmont is short and slightly constricted 
in the middle. It does not form chains, and it stains by the 
anihne dyes. 

The microbe of Vallee is a bacillus smaller than the Bacillus 
tuberculosis. It occurs as single rods or in masses. It stains by 
Gram's method or by the other bacterial stains. 

Lesions. — The lesions caused by the streptobacillus are in 
the form of small disseminated abscesses varying in size from 
a hemp-seed to a pea. The larger and older ones are necrotic 
in the centre, which is whitish in colour and of the consistence 
of firm caseous material. The microbes are found in the 
younger nodules, but not in the older ones. The microbe 
seems to have a great tendency to invade the blood stream, 
and the lesions may be found in almost any organ. Histo- 
logically the nodules are made up of leucocytes ; no giant cells 
are present, and in the younger growths masses of bacilli are 
found in the small vessels. Courmont described the lesions 
in his case as typical tubercles. 

The lesions described by Valine in the livers of calves are 
small white nodules, which never exceed a millet-seed in size. 
Histologically they are similar to those caused by the strepto- 
bacillus. 

Inspection.— Jjigmeres has found the streptobacillus in the 
muscles of experimental animals dead of pseudotuberculosis. 
It is also known that animals can be infected by way of the 
alimentary track, that the bacillus has a great tendency to 



Plate vill. 





Actiaomycosis organism. 

1. Colony of clubs (ray fungus). 

2. Isolated coccus elements, raids, threads, 

and clubs (M'Fadyean). 




Head of Hen, with mouth open, showing lesions of avian diphtheria. 

a. False membrane. 

b. An ulcerous area. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES ifi 

invade the blood stream, and that man is susceptible to the 
disease. On these grounds, total seizure of the entire carcase 
of an infected animal is advisable, unless the lesions be confined 
to one organ. 

Too little is known about the other diseases described by 
Courmont and ValMe to enable one to discuss inspection in 
relation to them. 

•ProlDably seizure of the lesions would meet the case. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS 

Actinomycosis is a disease due to the actinomyces. 

Animals affected.— The, disease is most commonly met with in 
the ox. The pig in this country is much less frequently affected. 
One or two isolated cases have been recorded in the sheep and 
horse. Man may also be attacked. 

The actinomyces.— TYiQ parasite is usually found in animals 
in the form of colonies, known as the ray fungus. That, 
however, is not the only form. 

In an earlier stage the colonies consist of coccus forms, which 
are sometimes arranged in chains, and of bacillary and thread- 
like elements. The actinomyces is not a good parasite,— in the 
tissues it tends to lose its vitality, and it then assumes involution 
forms (cluljs). The ends of the filaments swell into club-like 
bodies, and the colonies assume the form known as the ray 
fungus. The threads radiate from a centre, and when a section 
is made of a ray-fungus colony in the tissues, it has an appear- 
ance which has been aptly enough compared to the capitulum 
of a daisy. The central threads, however, are usually de- 
generated. 

It is of interest to the inspector to know that the parasite 
is usually found in the above degenerated form in animals, 
because in that state it cannot be inoculated to others. 

The club forms can be well seen without any previous stain- 
ing, but they can be nicely stained l^y Plaut's method. The 
other elements stain by Gram's method. 



1 1 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

7vmo7is.— Most frequently the lesions appear as greyisli, 
firm nodules about the size of a barley grain. On cutting into 
these, one sees a small greenish yellow centre of softer material. 
This softened centre, however, may be absent ; it may be as large 
as a threepenny piece and quite caseous; sometimes it is brownish 
yellow in colour, and very hke a tuberculous nodule. It is seldom 
purulent in the liquid sense. The lesion, again, may take the 
form of a fibrous tumour known as an actinomycoma. Many 
of the latter show no softened centres whatever, and it is only 
on making a microscopic examination that the true nature 
of the growth is discovered. These tumours are generally 
found growing fi'om the buccal mucous membrane or on the 
skin of the ox. An important point about the actinomycosis 
lesion is, that it is almost always associated with a considerable 
fibrous proliferation in an organ; and this is one point of dis- 
tinction between it and tuberculosis. Histologically the nodules 
consist of leucocytes, epithelioid cells, and in the older cases 
a more or less fibrous periphery. There may or may not be 
giant cells present ; they are never so numerous as in 
the tubercular nodule. One or two colonies of the parasite 
are found embedded in the cells ; but when the nodule is large, 
they, along with the cellular centres, genei-ally fall out of 
sections cut on the freezing microtome. Calcareous granules 
are sometimes present. 

Actinomycosis of the organs, and infection.— Primary in- 
fection takes place usually by way of the alimentary tract, and 
it is due to the ingestion of contaminated fodder. The parasite 
apparently reaches the tissues through wounds in the mucous 
membrane of the mouth. It may also occur from inhalation 
of contaminated dust, or the parasite may penetrate the 
mammary gland by way of the teats. Any external wound 
may serve as a port of entrance. The fibrous tumour (known 
as scirrhous cord) which is found on the end of the spermatic 
cord of the ox, is caused by the entrance of the actinomyces 
by the wound of castration. Once in the tissues, the infection 
may travel by way of the lymph stream to neighbouring parts ; 



Plate iz. 




f^ -ST 



^ r 




Portion of Tongue of Ox, showing the Lesions of Actinomycosis. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 113 

but, on the whole, the lesion tends to remain local. Generalisa- 
tion is almost unknown in animals. 

The organ most frequently affected in the ox is the tongue, 
but commonly enough the lesions are found in the bones of the 
jaw and the muscles of the cheek in contact with the bones. 
The pharyngeal glands are also pretty frequently affected. The 
other organs, such as the lungs, livei', bowel, mammary gland, 
etc.^may show lesions. In the pig, muscular actinomycosis is 
said to be fairly common in some parts of Germany ; but if we 
exclude the cases in which the tongue and the cheek muscles 
are affected, the lesion must be of rare occurrence in this country. 
The parts most often diseased in the pig are the tongue, tonsils, 
and mammary gland. The infrequency of generalised lesions 
is probably explained by the feebly parasitic propensity of the 
actinomyces. Only one or two cases of generalisation have 
been recorded. The lesions were situated in the lungs, liver, 
glands, and muscles. 

Tongue.— The tongue is increased in size, and very fibrous 
if the disease has existed for any time (wooden tongue). The 
nodules are found on the sides and dorsum, usually about the 
upper third of the organ. Generally they are confined to the 
more superficial parts. The larger nodules on the surface tend 
to ulcerate and give rise to a superficial sore. Fibrous tumours 
may be found in connection with the lips and palate. 

Oesophagus, stomach, and intestines.— These organs may be 
infected directly by ingested material, but actinomycosis lesions 
are rarely found in them. The lesion is in the form of ulcers 
and nodules which often attain to considerable size. 

Liver and other abdominal organs.— In this country these 
organs are seldom found aft'ected, and little is known about 
the mannei' of invasion. Probably the liver is invaded by way 
of the portal vessels from the bowel. The nodules, when present 
in the liver, are softened in the central part and fibi'ous at the 
periphery. The organ is also cirrhotic. 

Lungs.— The lungs are infected directly by the inhalation 
of contaminated dust. Once a lesion is started, the other parts 



114 



ME A T INSFE CTION 



may be invaded much in the same manner as in the case of 
tuberculosis, except that wide-spread actinomycosis lesions are 
very uncommon. The nodules are usually discrete, fibrous at 
their periphery, and separated from each other by a considerable 
stretch of lung tissue. In some cases, however, cei'tain areas 
show many soft and confluent nodules, similar to what one 
finds hi tuberculous broncho-pneumonia. 

Serous membranes.— They are not often invaded. Nodules 
varying in size from a small pea to a nut ai-e found on their 
surfaces. 




Fig. 15. — Superior maxilla of ox, actinomycosis. 

Bones. — The bones most frequently affected ai-e the 
superior and inferior maxillae. They are invaded primarily 
through wounds into the alveoli, or secondarily by way of the 
lymph stream from lesions in the mouth or on the cheeks. 
The bodies of the vertebras and the ribs are also sometimes 
attacked,— probably the infection is in their case by the lymph 
stream from a diseased gland. 

The bones are swollen, carious, and rarefied . The bones of the 
jaw are often perforated by cloacae, from which pus issues. The 
tissues round about are swollen and show nodules. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 115 

Glands.— They are infected from lesions in the neigh- 
bourhood. At first they are enlai-ged and (Edematous, but 
show no macroscopic nodules. Later they are much increased 
in size, and show softened centres. 

Muscles.— When lesions exist in the muscles, infection has 
probably taken place from the skin or glands by the lymph 
stream. Infection by the blood stream is rare. The inter- 
muscular fibrous tissue is much increased at the expense of the 
muscle fibres; softened centres— cold abscesses— are seen in 
the new tissue. 

Skin. — The lesion is in the form of a fibrous tumour, which 
sometimes suppurates. In the metacarpal and metatai'sal 
regions of the ox the actinom5^ces may cause a lesion similar 
to those described under tuberculosis. 

Mammary gland. — The situation of the lesions in the 
gland points usually to an invasion by way of the teats. The 
lesion is more common than one generally admits. In three 
of four cases examined by the Editor, the nodules were situated 
in one quarter, and they were most numerous towards the 
base of the teat. In the fourth case the whole gland was 
more or less invaded. 

The gland is very cirrhotic and difficult to cut. 

The nodules are so like those of tuberculosis, that a micro- 
scopical exammation is necessary to establish the diagnosis. 
The hardness of the gland, the situation of the nodules, and 
the absence of lesions in other organs, should always make one 
suspect actinomycosis. 

The Editor has met with one case of mammary actinomycosis 
(cow) in which tuberculosis was present in the internal organs. 

/Tispeci-ioTi.- The records of comparative medicine do not 
furnish us with any proof that actinomycosis is communicated 
from animals to human beings. The state of the parasite as it 
is usually found in animals renders it unlikely that the disease 
in man is ever due to ingestion of butcher meat. Still one must 
admit a possibility of infection in this way, and even the least 
aesthetic would hardly care to eat pai'ts containing the lesions. 



1 1 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

The carcase will be seized in entirety when there ai'e lesions 
in several parts of the muscular system and when it is much 
emaciated, as it may be in the ox if the tongue and jaw^s are 
diseased. If the flesh be of good quality, the carcase may be 
passed after the parts containing lesions have been removed. 

GLANDERS 

This is a contagious disease caused by the bacillus of glanders 
— the Bacillus mallei. 

Animals affected.— G\a,nder& is almost exclusively a disease 
of the horse tribe, and on this account it is of secondary im- 
poi'tance to British Meat Inspectors. ' Human beings certainly 
contract the disease ; but it must seldom happen that they do so 
by eating glandered flesh or organs. 

Bovine animals are absolutely refractor}^ to glanders. If 
virulent material be injected under the skin of an ox, the only 
result is a small abscess, which remains local. According to 
Peuchu, sheep can be inoculated locally. They may even be 
affected with clinical glanders after inoculation, but they never 
take the disease naturally. 

Pigs never contract glanders by the natural methods of 
infection, and they are almost absolutely refractory to experi- 
mental inoculation. 

Goats have been infected by cohabitation with glandered 
horses (Nocard). The dog shows only a local lesion after 
inoculation ; but the cat may die of glanders under the same 
circumstances. 

The microbe.— The bacillus is rod-like, and measures from 
3 to 5 yu, by alDout 1. Many of the rods Avhen stained show a 
number of small and closely set uncoloured parts, which give 
the bacillus a granular appearance. The extremities of the rod 
are rounded. They may be stained by Loffler's or Kuhne's 
blues ; diluted carbol-fuchsin also suits very well. Cover-glass 
preparations should be washed in water only, as the bacilli are 
not very retentive of the stains. Preparations can be obtained 



Plate XI 




Group of Glanders Ulcers on Inner Surface of Anterior and Upper Part 
of Nostril of Horse. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 



117 



from the soft material of the nodules ; but, except in acute 
cases, the microbes are very few in number, so few that it is 
seldom possible to demonstrate their presence with the micro- 
scope. 

XmoTis.— The lesions are in the form of nodules situated 
on the mucous membranes and in the parenchyma of organs 
(glanders), or they may appear in the superficial lymphatics 
and* on the skin (farcy). Of the internal organs, the lungs 
and their covering are most frequently the site of lesions ; indeed, 
the nodules are often confined to the lungs. The superficial 
lesions are found most often on the Schneiderian mucous mem- 
brane covering the septum nasi, and on the skin. 

Septum nasi.— The nodules here are in the form of small 
papules about the size of a lentil-seed. There may be only a 
few isolated ones, or they may 
be present in groups which often 
merge into each other. They 

consist of dense collections of . / 

leucocytes like miliary abscesses. 
The membrane softens and gives 
way over the papule, and an ulcer 
is left. The ulcers are about the 
size of a split-pea ; their edges 
are irregular and slightly raised. 
Large ulcerous patches of an inch 
or two in length may be formed 
by confluence of the smaller 
ulcers. A mucopurulent dis- 
charge, usually odourless, issues from the membrane. Similar 
patches of ulceration are sometimes found on other parts of 
the respiratory passages. 

Lymph glands.— The glands in the neighbourhood of 
the lesions are often swollen. This is seen especially in the 
submaxillary lymphatics, but they seldom suppurate in the 
ordinary sense of the word, although their enlargement is due 
at first to accumulation of leucocytes. After a time new fibrous 




Fig. 16. — Bacillus mallei in pus 
(oil immersion, rV)- 



1 1 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

tissue is formed, and the gland becomes hard. Necrotic patches 
may be found in the gland substance. The bronchial glands 
are seldom increased in size. 

Lungs and pleura.— The pleura covering the superficial 
nodules in the lung is often thickened, but a large extent of 
its surface may be swollen and opaque. The thickening is at 
first due to distention of the lymph spaces ; but in cases of long 
standing it is due to the formation of new fibrous tissue. The 
lungs show nodules in their substance, some of which feel hard 
and shot-like. The appearance of the nodules changes somewhat 
with their age. The 5'ounger ones are in the form of greyish or 
yellowish specks, varying in size from that of a pin-head to that of 
a split-pea . They are usually surrounded by a red zone. The 
older ones range in size from a pea to a nut. Their peripheral 
part is fibrous, and the central part is either purulent or caseous. 
Sometimes they are calcareous. The distribution of the nodules 
is very irregular. There may be only two or three present in 
one lung, or there may be over a hundred in the two portions. 
The latter characters help one to distinguish glanders from 
pulmonary tuberculosis in the horse ; for in the latter case 
the lesion is almost always an acute miliary one, and the 
tubercles are so numerous and evenly distributed that they 
give to the lungs a solid appearance throughout. In some 
cases of glanders the lung tissue is hepatised over areas 
the size of one's hand. The solidified parts are of a dirty 
white colour, and the interlobular septa are much Avidened. 
In acute cases both lungs may be almost completely hepatised. 
The latter form is commonly seen in the ass, but it is rare 
in the horse. 

In chronic cases there is frequently a considerable amount 
of new fibrous tissue formed under the pleura and in the lung 
substance. 

The microscope shows that the youngest tubercles begin 
as a collection of leucocytes. These look like miliary abscesses, 
and they obscure the alveolar walls. The capillary vessels of 
the air cells round about them are crammed with white cells, 



Plate x. 




Septum Nasi Glanders, 



BACTERIAL DISEASES j f 9 

and the alveoli contain a fibrinous material and leucocytes. At 
a later stage, round and angular epithelioid cells are found outside 
the central part, and one or two giant cells may be seen (M'Fad- 
yean, Schiltz). The giant cells, however, are not so numerous 
as in the true tubercle. The air cells at the outermost part of 
the nodule contain a croupous exudate— fibrin, leucocytes, and 
red cells. 




Fig. 17. — Microscopical section of chronic glanders nodule. 
M'Fadyean. 



In the oldest nodules the central part is necrotic. It con- 
sists of disintegrated cells and chromatin particles (chromato- 
lysis) ; it is sometimes calcareous. The peripheral part is 
fibrous. 

In the large hepatised areas the alveolar vessels are distended 
by leucocytes, and their cavities contain a dense fibrinous exudate. 

The walls of the smaller bronchial tubes in the neighbour- 
hood of the lesion are densely infiltrated by round cells, and 
their epithelium is in a state of catarrh. 



1 2 o ME A T INSFE CTION 

In the lungs of the horse, circumscribed fibro-cellular 
nodules, which are caused by a worm, are sometimes found. 
They are about the size of a pea. These might be mistaken 
for glanders tubercles. The microscope, however, shows that 
the lesion has had its starting-point in a vessel of considerable 
size. It is, in fact, a chronic arteritis, and the worm, which is 
generally calcified, can sometimes be seen. Most of the cells 
in the centre are still intact ; many of them are leucocytes con- 
taining coarse granules, which stain with eosin. 

Liver.— The liver is seldom the seat of lesions in the horse. 
It may, hoAvever, show a few nodules varying in size from a 
mere speck to a pea. In the liver of a lion which died of glanders, 
the Editor found innumerable miliary abscesses of microscopic 
size. They contained the hacillus mallei. 

Spleen.— The spleen may show nodules like those found 
elsewhere. 

Intestines. —They are seldom the seat of lesions. Schiitz, 
in his experimental cases, found miliary nodules in the mucous 
membrane, distension of the lymphatic vessels, and enlarge- 
ment of the glands. 

Kidney.— This organ is very rarely the seat of glanderous 
lesions. Nocard, however, has recorded two cases of glanderous 
abscesses in the kidney. In one of the cases the other lesions 
were found in the bowel and mesentery ; the lungs were intact. 
Lesions have also been described in the testicles, in the heart, 
and in the bones. In the latter situation glanders bacilli 
give rise to caries and sometimes to an abscess. The lesions 
have been oftenest described in connection with the vertebrae 
and ribs. 

Skin (Farcy).— It is usually the skin of the limbs that is 
affected, but similar lesions may occur on other parts of the 
body. The nodules generally start in the subcutaneous tissue, 
and they elevate the skin over areas about the size of a three- 
penny piece. The skin at the summit becomes softened and 
yellowish in colour. It gives way, and a thick hanph-like 
fluid or pus is discharged. These ulcers are most numerously 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 121 

present on the inner surfaces of the Hmbs. The lymphatic 
glands and vessels are swollen ; the latter stand out on the 
surfaces. The subcutaneous tissue is distended by lymph, 
and the affected limb is much thickened. 

M'Fadyean has shown that the so-called Widal reaction 
may be used to confirm the diagnosis of glanders in animals 
after death, but the delicacy of the manipulations necessary 
in applying this test renders it useless except in skilled hands. 
Glanders bacilli, removed from a recent potato culture by means 
of a platinum wire, are suspended in sterile broth or normal salt 
solution. They may be taken directly from a broth culture. 

A platinum wire loopful of the above fluid is placed on a clean 
cover-glass, and to it is added an equal quantity of diluted blood 
(or serum) from the suspected case. The cover-glass is inverted 
on a concave slide, which is immediately placed under the 
microscope. When a dilution of glandered blood in broth or 
salt solution (1 in 9, M'Fadyean) is added to, an equal quantity 
of broth containing the microbes, the bacilli form into little 
clumps after an hour : at the end of two hours the clumping 
is complete all over the preparation. The blood of a healthy 
horse also causes clumping; but in the latter case the 
phenomenon is less marked, and requires a much longer time 
for its production. 

Bourges and Mery obtained clumping in three cases with 
a dilution of blood from glandered horses equal to 1 to 1000. 
In one case they obtained it with a dilution of 1 to 2000. They 
never obtained it with the blood of a non-glandered horse when 
the dilution was more than 1 to 300. 

/Tispec^iou. —The question as to whether the muscles of 
glandered animals are virulent or not has not been submitted 
to the same amount of exhaustive investigation as it has in 
the case of tuberculosis ; the necessities of the case have not 
demanded it. The horse is practically the only domesticated 
animal which naturally contracts glanders, and the disease 
is much less prevalent than tuberculosis of the bovine race. 
Moreover, the quantity of horse flesh used for human food is 



1 2 2 ME A T INSPE CriON 

relatively small, and the value of the carcase is STich that total 
seizure inflicts no great hardship on the owner. The blood 
of glandered horses, even in acute cases, seldom contains the 
bacilli in sufficiently large numbers to render it dangerous, 
and, so far as we know at least, the flesh itself has seldom been 
found virulent. Still the glands may contain ba,cilli, and 
manipulation of the carcase is not unattended with danger. 

Menagerie animals have been known to contract the disease 
by eating the flesh of glandered horses ; but it is by inoculation 
of the external parts that human beings are infected. 

The provisions of The Glanders or Farcy Order, 1894, 
sec. 17, fairly meet the case. They compel total seizure and 
destruction of every part of a horse, ass, or mule that was 
diseased at the time when it died or was slaughtered. 

DISEASES CHARACTERISED BY SUPPURATION 

Suppuration is a condition produced by the growth of 
pyogenic or pus-producing bacteria in the tissues of a living 
animal. 

Suppuration, when it occurs in some organs of the body, 
receives a special name, wdiich in a text-book of medicine, oi' 
even in one of pathology, would entitle the aft'ection in each 
organ to a special chapter. The Editor is of opinion, however, 
that in a book on meat inspection the morbid conditions 
characterised by suppuration can be more conveniently and 
briefly dealt with in one chapter. 

Anvmals ayifecfec?. — Suppiu^ation may occur in any of the 
domesticated animals; it is, in fact, of everyday occurrence. 

Tlie m-icroSes.— Several microbes which really give rise to 
the formation of pus, such as the tubercle bacillus and the 
bacillus of glanders, are not usually classed with the micro- 
organisms of suppuration, because the diseases caused by the 
former have received special names. 

The most widely distributed pyogenic microbes are the 
Streptococcus of strangles, the Btaphylococcus pyogenes aureus, 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 123 

the Staphylococcus 'pyogenes alhus, and the Streptococcus pyo- 
genes. It is usually to the effects of the latter organisms 
that the term suppuration is applied. In pus of a bluish 
colour, a special ohromogenic microbe— the bacillus of blue 
pus or Bacillus pyocyaneus — is also found. The microbes 
can be seen in preparations made from the pus. They stain 
well by the methyl-blue methods. 

Eesions.— It seems probable that the bacteria can at first 
penetrate only a damaged tissue, but a very small injury is 
often sufficient. A primary lesion may be found in connection 
with a superficial wound, or it may arise in any organ— lung, 
vagina, urethra, bladder, uterus, etc.— in direct communi- 
cation with the external air. In the tissues the microbes by 
the products of their metabolism attract a large number of 
leucocytes around them ; the tissue becomes fatty and liquefied. 
In this way a cavity is formed which contains a fatty albumin- 
ous fluid of varying consistence. The liquid, which consists 
of liquor puris and white cells, is called pus ; the lesion is called 
an abscess. A suppurative inflammation may be established 
in a membrane, and if the membrane bound a cavity, a large 
amount of pus accumulates therein. Thus we may meet with 
a collection of pus in the chest— pyo-thorax ; in the pericar- 
dium— pi/o-peHcarc^'i'um ; or in the uterus. An abscess generally 
increases until the tissue which separates it from the external 
air or a cavity is liquefied, then its contents are evacuated. The 
deeper-seated ones, however, and those in internal organs, 
often become surrounded by a fibrous capsule which limits 
their extension. The fluid, again, may be absorbed, and the 
solids left as a dry caseous mass, which sometimes becomes 
calcified. Abscesses vary in size from a ]Din's head— miliary 
abscess— to anything in reason. The lesion may and often 
does remain local, but the infection may spread by the lymph 
stream to. the neighbouring glands ; or a vessel may become 
implicated in the suppurative process, its wall perforated, and 
the blood stream contaminated. In the latter case the bacteria 
enter the circulation, and are arrested in the capillaries of 



1 2 4 ME A T INSPE CTION 

internal organs, wliere tliey provoke abscesses. This condition, 
in which the blood stream has been contaminated by the 
pus germs, is called Pycemia. The affected organs may show 
only a few abscesses ; or their whole substance may be crowded 
with yellow miliary ones of the same age. The latter lesion 
resembles acute miliary tuberculosis, for at first the contents of 
the abscesses are not fluid. It also resembles the early lesions 
of glanders, and those of nodular parasitic pneumonia in sheep. 

It is almost impossible by a mere microscopic or histological 
examination of an organ to distinguish between the three lesions 
in their initial stage, so alike are they. Glanders, however, 
does not affect the ox, and is practically never seen in the other 
animals slaughtered in our abattoirs. In the case of miliary 
tuberculosis, chronic lesions which are easy to recognise as 
tubercles \vill be found in some other part. A bacteriological 
examination may aid one in making the diagnosis ; but it may 
be disappointing, because the tubercle bacillus is often difficult 
to find in very young lesions. The presence of staphylococci 
or streptococci is evidence in favour of suppuration, but it is 
not conclusive, as there might be a mixed infection. 

Histologically an abscess consists of a dense collection of 
leucocytes. There are no giant cells present, but their absence 
is not by any means conclusive evidence that the lesion is not 
one of tuberculosis, although their presence would justify the 
conclusion that the case is not one of ordinary suppuration. 
What has been said above is of importance only as regards the 
use of the flesh, for there can be no doubt about the advisability 
of seizing the aft'ected organs. When multiple miliary abscesses 
are present throughout an organ, unless it be the liver alone, 
and when abscesses are found in two or more organs which 
do not communicate naturally or accidentally with the outside 
air, nor with each other by any path other than the blood vessels, 
one may fairly conclude that the microbes have been in the 
blood stream, although they may not have entered in large 
numbers. The nodular disease in the lungs of sheep will be 
fully described in another section. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 125 

Suppuration in the Organs 

All the organs may be invaded by way of the blood 
stream in the case of pyaemia. 

Lungs and pleura. —The lungs may be infected from without, 
or from an abscess of the throat by way of the bronchial tubes. 
They may also be invaded when a foreign body penetrates from 
without, or from the second stomach in cattle. The latter 
accident is fairly common in town cows, and the foreign l3ody 
is generally a sharp piece of wire or wood. When suppuration 
arises from the latter cause, the pus is foetid. A blackened 
track generally marks the course that the body has taken ; 
and the lungs, besides showing abscesses, become emphy- 
sematous from the gases entering. In cases of some 
standing, the connective tissue about the wound is much 
increased. 

In the lungs of sheep aflfected with nodular (parasitic) pneu- 
monia, the Editor has frequently met with true abscesses of 
about the same size as the larger parasitic nodules. These 
abscesses are generally multiple, irregularly distributed, encap- 
suled, and contain a greenish-coloured pus, but no parasite. 
The sheep are usually fat, and of healthy appearance. 

The pleura may be infected in the same way as the lung 
—by the passage of a foreign body, or by an abscess from the 
latter organ evacuating its contents into the chest cavity; 
pyo-thorax or empyema is the result. The thoracic glands 
are infected from the lungs and pleura. 

Heart and pericardium. — Suppuration in these organs 
is in the majority of cases caused by a penetrating body from 
the second stomach. Abscess in the heart wall, however, is 
very uncommon even in pyaemia. The changes are usually 
those of chronic septic myocarditis. The heart muscle is 
hypertrophied, and its wall is the seat of chronic m3^ocarditis. 
The epicardium is covered by a dense false membrane, and 
it is often adherent to the parietal la5'er of the sac. A 
variable amount of foetid purulent material escapes when the 



1 2 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

pericardium is incised. Sometimes a vast collection of blood- 
stained pus is present in the serous cavity. 

Liver. —The liver may be invaded through a wound due to 
a foreign body passing from the second stomach of the ox. 
The lesion is not rare as a consequence of the latter accident. 
Under these circumstances the peritoneal surface of the organ 
is covered by a false membrane, which unites it firmly to the 
diaphragm. The second stomach will also be found much 
thickened at the injured part, and adherent to the diaphragm 
and superior portion of the liver. The organ in newly-born 
animals is sometimes invaded by way of the umbilical vein, 
which passes through it (see Navel-Ill and Joint-Ill). In the 
latter case the abscesses are usually multiple. In adult oxen, 
abscesses in the liver from other causes are not by any means 
rare. The organ is probably invaded by way of the portal blood 
from a suppurating focus or catarrhal lesion in the bowel ; but 
this question requires further investigation. The lesion often 
complicates that of distomatosis, and it is also possible that the 
microbes have been carried from the bowel by the parasites. 
It has been already pointed out, however, that some hepatic 
abscesses are due to the tubercle bacillus. If an abscess has 
been superficially placed, one sees an inflammatory or a 
purulent area on the peritoneal surface of the diaphragm 
where the abscess has been in contact. This may be seen in 
the carcase desjDoiled of its viscera. 

Spleen. —In pyaemia, of course, the spleen is likely to be 
invaded, but, that excepted, abscess of the spleen is exceed- 
ingly rare in animals. It is dijficult to explain the origin of 
isolated abscesses in the organ, but possibly they are caused 
by the arrest of a few leucocytes carrying microbes. The latter 
lesions cannot be taken as evidence of pj^semia in its full 
sense. 

Stomach and intestines. — Abscesses in these organs are 
rarely met with in animals. When present, the probability is 
that the germs have gained entrance to their tissue by means 
of wounds on the mucous membrane. An abscess in the wall 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 127 

of the alimentary tube may burst into the peritoneum and 
cause suppurative peritonitis. 

Kidney.— The Iddney is frequently invaded in the course of 
pyaemia, and then both organs are affected (see Joint-Ill). 
The miliary abscesses in this case are most numerous in the 
cortex, because the glomerular capillaries arrest the microbes. 
They are also present, however, in the medulla. The organ 
is enlarged, and in cases of some standing contains a good 
deal of new fibrous tissue. The capsule is adherent. The 
kidney may also be invaded by way of the ureter, when suppura- 
tion is present in some other part of the urino-genital tract, 
such as the vagina, urethra, or bladder. In this case— sup- 
purative pyelo-nephritis— the abscesses are at first most evident 
in the medulla, but after the process has gone on for some 
time the whole organ is invaded, and it is difficult to say 
from an examination of it alone, how infection has taken place. 
If only one kidney is affected, one may conclude that the 
invasion has taken place by the ureter. Both kidneys, of 
course, might be simidtaneously invaded by way of the ureters ; 
but in the case of a blood stream infection a primary focus 
will be found elsewhere in the shape of a softened clot or an 
abscess. 

Udder.— The udder is usually invaded through a wound 
into its subcutaneous tissue, or by way of the teats. In the 
former case a single abscess is the usual result; but in the 
latter, multiple abscesses are formed throughout the quarter, 
and may burst externally. 

Uterus and ovaries.— The uterus is invaded usually by way 
of the vulva and vagina. When suppuration occurs it is 
almost always as a sequel of parturition. Pus collects in vari- 
able amount in the uterus, and frequently becomes putrid. 
The microbes sometimes grow up the clots in the vessels until 
the patent branches are reached, and in this way pyaemia may 
be estabhshed (see Septic Metritis). 

Bones.— It is not rare to find suppuration in the bones, and 
the marrow is certain to be invaded in the course of pyaemia. 



1 2 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

A single bone may be infected from a neighbouring abscess or 
by way of a penetrating M'^ound from without. The extremities 
of the bone are where the abscess mostly forms. The bone 
becomes much swollen, and its substance is perforated by 
cloacae, through which pus escapes to the exterior. In some 
cases the pus collects under the periosteum, stripping it 
off from the bone, and as a consequence the latter undergoes 
necrosis. In other cases the microbes eat into the bone, as it 
were, from without. No abscess is formed, but necrosis takes 
place in small particles. This condition, which is called caries, 
can be brought about by other microbes than those of suppur- 
ation. It is generally seen in connection with the ' vertebrae, 
and is well exemplified in some cases of poll-evil of the horse, 
when the occipital bone and the atlas become implicated. The 
affected part of the bone has an eroded appearance ; it is irregular, 
and there is often a considerable loss of substance. When the 
bone marrow is invaded from without— infective osteo-mj^elitis 
—pyaemia follows, because the microbes easily gain access to 
the circulation owing to the naturally delicate condition 
of the vessel walls in the marrow. In pyaemia from other 
sources the condition of the marrow affords us very useful 
information. It is congested, and contains the microbes. If 
the animal has lived long enough, purulent centres will be 
found. 

■ Navel-Ill and Joint-Ill 

The fii'st of these terms is ajDplied to a septic condition 
of the umbilical wound in newly-born animals. The wound 
does not heal, but continues to discharge. Even after 
it has closed up an abscess may form in the subcutaneous 
tissue. Navel-ill in the majority of cases leads to the 
far more serious condition termed " Joint-ill," or " Umbilical 
Pyaemia." The pyogenic microbes extend along the clots in 
the umbilical vessels. In this way they reach the liver, where 
multiple alDscesses are soon formed, and the general circulation, 
whereby the other organs of the body are invaded. The pyaemic 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 12$ 

condition is well established, and often proves fatal about the 
third or fourth week of life ; that is to say, before the age when 
the young enter the abattoir. Some of them, however, hang on 
for a considerable time longer, and are sent to the abattoir in 
the hope that something may be made out of them. 

Animals afected. — AW young animals are liable to contract 
the disease. It is sometimes seen even in children. It is met 
withr most frequently, however, in foals, calves, and lambs, 
animals whose umbilical wounds are often left to take care of 
themselves. 

Lesions. — The lesions are, of course, those of pysemia. 
Abscesses are found in the liver, the spleen, the kidney, the 
lungs, and sometimes in the muscles. In some cases, however, 
the symptoms seem due to intoxication, as no distinct 
abscesses are observable. The joints, particularly the hocks 
and knees, are swollen. On cutting into them, one finds the 
synovial membrane congested or opaque— synovitis ; the cavity 
contains a turbid fluid, but it is rare to find true pus. 
Microbes may be found in the joint fluid. 

Steangles 

As this disease is peculiar to the horse tribe, a short descrip- 
tion will suffice in an English book on meat inspection. 

It is characterised by a purulent catarrh of the anterior 
respiratory passages, and by the formation of abscesses in the 
neighbouring lymphatic glands and on the skin. Sometimes 
metastatic abscesses are formed in the internal organs. 

The disease is caused by the streptococcus of Schiitz, which 
is found in preparations made from the pus. It stains by the 
methyl-blue preparations, and by Gram's method. 

Inspection in the case of sujjpurative diseases. — Although 
there is no evidence to show that suppuration or pyaemia 
can arise in human beings from the ingestion of food contain- 
ing pyogenic germs, it is generally believed by medical men 
9 



1 30 ME A T INSPE CTION 

that food of this description— milk, for examiDle— may be the 
cause of serious bowel disturbance, such as catarrh and 
diarrhoea. 

When superficial aliscesses exist, and the neighbouring glands 
are healthy, it ^\'ill only be necessary to seize the affected j^art 
and the altered tissue round about it. It will generally be 
found that the tissues in the neighbourhood are infiltrated 
with fluid, and that they are in an unmarketable condition. 
The rest of the carcase, however, is usually quite fit for the 
market, and no harm can result from passing it. When the 
local glands are also diseased, the whole of the region concerned 
should be seized. The fate of the other parts will, of course, 
depend on their appearance. 

In some of the finest-looking beasts encajDsuled abscesses 
are often found in some of the internal organs— the liver and 
lung, for example. It is a debataljle point Vvdiether these 
abscesses are of hematogenous origin or not ; Ijut if they are, 
very few bactei'ia can have entered the Ijlood stream, and the 
condition is not a pyaemia in its full sense. Onl}' the aft'ected 
organs need be seized. 

When the suppuration is local but ver}' extensive, as one 
sometimes finds in the uterus, the chest, and the jDeritoneum, 
the flesh is fevered and oedematous. It does not set, and in 
the majority of cases is quite unmarketable. In the case of the 
uter.us the jDelvio tissues are infiltrated with blood ; sometimes 
they are gangrenous and give ofi' a stinking odour (see Septic 
Metkitis). Flesh from cases of the latter desciiption putrefies 
i-apidly, and is always of very bad aspect. It should not be 
allowed into the market. Cows with a foreign body in the 
heart or lungs often live for a considerable time, even when the 
heart lesions are very marked. If serious febrile symptoms 
have been present just before death, the flesh is fevered, soapy 
to the feel, and in some parts oedematous. In addition, putre- 
factive changes are often present in the tissues and organs of 
the chest. 

A carcase presenting the above appearances will, of course. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 13.1 

be treated as unmarketable, because the flesli lias not only a 
repulsive aspect, but it is prone to rapid putrefaction. In a 
few cases in wliicli tlie septic changes are less marked, the 
flesh is normal and apparently fit for the mai'ket. It may, 
however, be necessary to order the pleura to be stripped off'. 
Before giving his final decision, the insiDector should satisfy 
himself as to the condition of the flesh and local glands by making 
incisions in a manner that will least disfigure the carcase. When 
pyaemia exists, the whole carcase should be seized. It is not always 
an easy matter to convince oneself of the presence or absence 
of pyaemia, but an inspector with a training in pathology will 
know that it is never a primary condition, that it is most likely 
to be connected with navel-ill, a sejDtic clot in one of the l^lood 
vessels, or suppuration in the marrow. A microscopic ex- 
amination of an organ in the fresh state does not require much 
time, and it may reveal the presence of multiple disseminated 
abscesses, although little altei'ation is ol^servable by the naked 
eye. 

BOTRYOMYCOSIS 

Botryomycosis is an inoculable disease caused by the Micro- 
coccus ascoformans, and chai'acterised b}' the formation of pus 
and of fibrous tissue in the parts invaded. 

Animals affected.— The horse is most often affected with 
this disease, but cases have been reported in the ox and pig. 

Les'io7i-s.— Czokor has recorded a case of interstitial mammitis 
in the cow due to this parasite. Lesions similar to those found 
in the horse have been described in the pig, viz. scirrhous 
cord, and chronic interstitial myositis affecting the muscles of 
the thigh. 

The new tissue crushes out the essential elements, and the 
organ is converted into a fibrous mass. In this new tissue 
softened centres are found, or there iiiav be cavities containino- 
an albuminous fluid of a brown colour. This fluid when ex- 
amined on a slide shows to the naked eye some yellow sand- 
like grains. These are colonies of the parasite. When stained 



1 3 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

by Loffler's or Kiihne's blue, and examined with the micro- 
scope, they appear as irregular masses of cocci, surrounded by 
a membrane. 

/■nsjoeciio?!.— The carcase may be passed after the affected 
parts have been removed. 

MAMMITIS 
Inflammation of the Mammaey Gland 

This is an afTection of the udder which may arise from more 
than one species of microbe penetrating iDy way of the teat. In 
the most prevalent form seen in this country it is accomjDanied 
by severe systemic disturbance. 

Animjols affected. — All females in lactation may suffer from 
mammitis, but it is chiefly in the milch cow that we meet with 
it in the abattoir. It is occasionally seen in the heifer, but in 
this case it is of the suppurative type. The goat also suffers. 
Nocard has described a gangrenous mammitis in ewes ; but so 
far as the Editor is aware, the disease has not been recorded 
in this country. 

The m'ic7-o&es.— Nocard has described a form of mammitis 
in milch cows which is due to a small streptococcus (Mammite 
streptococcique des vetches). The cocci have a diameter of 1 /*. 
They are found in the milk and in the acini. They stain well 
by the methyl-blue preparations. 

The Editor has repeatedly found streptococci and other 
microbes in the contents of the acini of affected udders. He 
has also been able to assure himself that these microbes w^ere 
the cause of the disease ; but he has never had the opportunity 
of experimentally proving that any individual species was alone 
responsible for it. 

The microbe of the gangrenous mammitis desciibed by 
Nocard is a small micrococcus arranged in zoogloea masses. 
It stains by the methyl-blue preparations and by Gram's method. 

Lesions.— 1\\ the disease described by Nocard there is a 
catarrhal inflammation of the acinal membrane. The lesions 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 133 

run a chronic course from the first ; new fibrous tissue is formed, 
first at the base of tlie teat, then it spreads gradually through 
the gland. There is no systemic disturbance. 

In the form of mammitis most frequently met with in this 
country, the disease starts with an acute stage. It is seldom 
fatal, but one sometimes gets an opportunity of making a post- 
mortem examination of the gland in the al^attoir even in the 
acute stages. Cows suft'ering from chronic mammitis are often 
sent for slaughter, as it does not pay to keep them for the pro- 
duction of milk. The disease may be confined to one quarter, 
or it may affect all four. 

In the acute stages the affected quarters are swollen, and the 
skin of the teats is tense. On section, the gland tissue is pink 
in colour ; the contents of the acini are creamy and blood-tinged. 
If the latter material be examined microscopically after staining, 
it will be found to contain leucocytes, epithelial cells, red blood 
corpuscles, and various microbes. In some forms of mammitis 
the contents of the acini are serous and stinking. In others 
they are filled with thick pus of a yellow colour, and there may 
even be large abscesses in the gland substance. In still another 
form the acini contain greyish or yellowish clots of coagulated 
milk. 

The explanation of these variations lies in the difTerent 
properties of the microbes Avhich are capable of setting up 
mammitis. 

It should be mentioned, however, that in a normal gland 
which has been exposed for some time in the post-mortem room, 
the milk in the acini becomes clotted. This condition has been 
already referred to in the chapter on Tuberculosis (p. 99). A 
microscopical examination of the gland will reveal the true 
state of affairs. When an}^ of the above forms have existed 
for some time, as is frequently the case, the gland is enlarged 
and harder than normal, owing to the formation of new fibrous 
tissue. On section, the graining of the fibrous parts is coarser, 
and the new tissue by its contraction renders the remaining 
gland substance more prominent in certain parts. Tbe Editor 



134 MEAT INSPECTION 

lias already stated that many of the cases of chronic interstitial 
mammitis which have come under his notice have turned 
out, on microscopical examination, to be due to the tubercle 
bacillus, although the macroscopic appearance did not in the 
least justify such a conclusion. 

The histological changes in mammitis are conclusive. In 
the acute stages the acinal walls are swollen and densely in- 
filtrated with round cells. The spaces contain many leucocytes, 
some red corpuscles, and a fair proportion of desquamated 
epithelial cells. A few microbes are discovered in some of the 
acini. In the chronic stages the acini are compressed by new 
fibrous tissue. In some lobules they are more wideh'' separated 
from each other than in the normal gland ; they may be 
obliterated altogether by the new growth (Fig. 11). The 
changes observed in one part of the same quarter may be 
acute, while those seen in a neighbouring region are of a 
chronic nature. The supramammary lymphatics may be 
normal, but in the purulent and stinking forms they are 
enlarged and cedematous. 

The flesh of the carcase is darker than normal, and shows 
the alterations produced by fever, if the animal has been killed 
in the acute stage. When the latter is past, no alteration 
is discoverable in the flesh. In the stinking form, however, 
the flesh may have a faint but unpleasant odour, and it is lialile 
to putrefy quickly . 

The appearances of mammitis caused by the tubercle bacillus 
and the actinom5^ces have been described in special chapters. 

Inspection.— In all cases the diseased gland and its lymphatics 
should be removed and destroyed. The fate of the carcase 
will of course depend on its appearance. If the proprietor 
has been so ill-advised as to have his animal slaughtered 
during the acute stages, the flesh will be dark in colour, sticky, 
and it may not set firmly. These faults may be present to 
such an extent as to render the carcase unfit for the market. 
In the fresh condition there is nothing about the flesh which 
is likely to injure the consmner; but carcases of this kind 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 135 

which would be accepted in one market would be rejected on 
account of their appearance in another. The inspector, how^- 
ever, should exercise greater severity when dealing with cases 
of puti'id mammitis, for the flesh under these circumstances 
may putrefy rather rapidly. If it gives off any disagreeable 
odour it should be condemned. 

SEPTIC METRITIS 

This is an inflammatory affection of the womb, which is due to 
bacteria penetrating by way of the genital organs. It is accom- 
panied by severe systemic disturbance, due to absorption of the 
bacterial products. 

In this chapter the Editor has included the disease known 
as " malignant partuiient fever " in ewes. He does not intend 
to convey the idea, however, that all the affections here included 
are one and the same, —they are only to be regarded as in the 
same category ; but it would be impossiljle to treat them separ- 
ately, owing to the state of our knowledge concerning their 
pathology. For the purposes of a book on meat inspection, 
this arrangement is quite suitable. 

Animals affected. — All parturient animals are liable to such 
disorders. In the city abattoirs the disease is seen mostly in 
cows. Affected ewes are seldom sent in alive, but their carcases 
may be forwarded after being dressed. Sows in this condition 
seldom arrive in the abattoir either dead or alive, but certain 
sequelae of the affection, in the form of abscesses, may be found 
in some members of this species, which have been slaughtered 
long after the last parturition. 

The microbes.— The different species of microbes found at 
the seat of disease are very numerous, but it has not yet been 
shown that any one of them is solely responsible for the disease ; 
indeed, it is more likely that several act in concert. Some of 
them are pyogenic, others are putrefactive. 

Lesions.— The lesions vary greatly. It may be that the 
disturbance has been caused by a retained piece of the placenta, 



1 3 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

which has begun to jjiitrefy. In this case the uterus is not 
properly retracted. Its cavity contains a small amount of a 
thick, reddish brown fluid, which has a disagreeable odour. 
The cotyledons are congested and pulpy in appearance. The 
flesh is fevered. 

In other cases the uterine walls are thickened and oedema- 
tous. The mucous membrane is congested, and the cavity of 
the organ contains a considerable quantity of sanious pus, 
which smells abominably. 

The pelvic tissues in such cases are discoloured by extra- 
vasated blood, and peritonitis is often present.. The lips of the 
vulva are often tense and oedematous, and the oedema may 
even extend to the perinseum. In some cases the uterus 
contains unaltered pus, and when the os uteri has become 
closed the distended organ may contain a gallon or two of that 
material. 

If the condition has existed for some time, abscesses may 
be found in the pelvic tissues ; there may even iDe a purulent 
pyelo-nephritis present, but that is a rai"e lesion. The microbes 
often cause softening of the clots in the uterine vessels, and 
they may spread along them until the circulation is reached. 
In the latter cases a species of septica?mia results, or embolic 
lesions may arise in the different organs. The serous mem- 
branes and lungs very often show lesions. 

In the uteri of cows which have recently aborted, there is 
often found a brownish, syrup}-, odourless fluid. The organ 
is more flaccid than it should be, but no marked changes are 
visible to the naked eye on its mucous membrane, nor are 
any signs of S3^stemic disturbance visible in the flesh. 

Serous membranes.— They are often ecchymosed. Some- 
times the peritoneum becomes infected from the uterus, and 
shows lesions of putrid inflannnation. A dirty grey false 
membrane is present, and the fluid contained in the cavity is 
stinking. The pleura and pericardium may show similar 
changes, but these have usually had their starting-point in 
the lung's. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 137 

Lungs.— Very often in the cow the kings are the seat of a 
lobar iDneiimonia which is putrid in character. Large areas 
of king are completely hepatised. Serous fluid oozes from the 
sui'face of section, and a putrefactive odour is given off". The 
appearance of the section is almost characteristic ; it somewhat 
resembles that of contagious pleuro-pneumonia. 

On section, the interlobular septa appear to be -much 
broader than the normal, owing to distension of their lymph 
spaces. The lobules are of a dull red colour, but they have 
many greyish specks scattered through them. 

The microscope shows that the aveolar contents consist 
mainly of leucocytes and red cells. Several species of microbes 
can be obtained from the lung. 

Inspection.— In the majority of cases of septic metritis the 
flesh is fevered. Sometimes it has an iridescent appearance, 
which is well seen when the carcase is ribbed. Frequently it 
happens that the animal does not bleed well. Li the latter 
case the flesh is very dark, and the superficial parts are dis- 
coloured l3y streaks of Wood. 

On these grounds alone the carcase might be condemned 
as unmarketalDle, for its appearance is very repulsive ; but there 
are still more serious objections to the indiscriminate use of 
the flesh from such carcases as human food. There is often 
strong evidence— emboHc lesions, septic pneumonia— that the 
iDlood stream has iDeen contaminated by noxious germs, and the 
flesh tends to putrefy quickly. Cases of the latter description 
call for total seizure. The uterus, however, may occasionally 
contain unaltered jdus, while the only other lesions seen are 
slight congestion of the i^elvic tissues, with the presence not 
infrequently of an abscess in their substance.- Signs of systemic 
disturbance are absent ; there is no evidence of embolic lesions, 
nor is the flesh fevered. In the opinion of the Editor, the 
latter cases should be dealt with in the same way as local 
suppuration (see p. 1.30). 



138 MEAT INSPECTION 

DIPTHERIA 

The term Diplitheria is applied in veterinary pathology to 
diseases characterised by superficial necrosis and the appear- 
ance of a false membrane on or about the fauces. This appli- 
cation is as unfortunate as it is loose, for not only does it 
leave undifferentiated by name diseases whose oiily point of 
similarity is a symptom, but it is apt to lead one to suppose 
that human diphtheria may have its origin in animals, which 
is probably not the case. 

The bacillus of human diphtheria has special characters 
of its own, and nobody has yet reported a disease in animals 
that corresponds in its lesions and systemic symptoms to human 
diphtheria. The existence of the latter disease in animals is 
rendered still more doubtful by the fact that they are exceed- 
ingly sensitive to the paralysing toxin of the true diphtheria 
bacillus. 

DiPHTHEEIA OF BlEDS 

The disease is caused by the bacillus of avian diphtheria. 
It has been described in all the birds of the farm and in game. 
Report seems to show that human beings are very rarely 
attacked by this disease. 

The micro&e.— The microbe is a bacillus, rounded at the 
ends, and measuring 1 //, x 0-3. It is found in masses with 
other microbes in the deep layers of the false membranes, 
and in acute cases it is present in the blood vessels (Septiccemia). 
It stains by the methyl-blue preparations, not by Gram's 
method. 

Xes'io /IS.— Tough yellow false membranes are found on the 
conjunctivae and On the mucous membranes of the mouth, 
pharynx, nasal cavities, and larynx. Sometimes the lower 
parts of the res|Diratory and alimentary membranes become 
infected from the upper, and similar lesions appear on the 
mucous linings of the bowel and bronchi. 

On pulling off the dense exuded material, a raw red surface 
is exposed. Sometimes the disease assumes an acute or septi- 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 139 

csemic form. In the latter case one finds congestion of the 
organs, especially the spleen, and small patches of necrosis 
in the liver. 

Sections of organs, when examined microscopically, show 
the bacilli in the small vessels. 

Z^ispeci'iou. — Apart from the risk of transmission to man 
of avian diphtheria, the possibility of wdiich hardly seems to 
be e^ablished, the birds are usually emaciated, and therefore 
unfit for human food. 



Diphtheria of Fowls due to Geegarinj^ 

Eivolta and Silvestri were the first to describe psorosperms 
in connection with the diphtheria of fowls. They considered 
them to be the cause of the disease, and Pfeiffer afterwards 
supported their opinion. 

It is established by more recent researches that refractile 
ovoid bodies (coccidia) are found in the scrapings from the 
throat and inside the epithelial cells of birds affected with the 
disease, but the experimental evidence is quite insufiicient to 
establish that these parasites are the cause of diphtheria in 
birds. 

Diphtheria of Calves 

So far as the Editor is aware, no case of the disease in this 
form has been recorded in this country, although a similar 
Ijacillus is pretty often responsible for necrosis in the livers of 
our adult oxen. 

Tlie m-icro^e. — Dammann first described this disease in 
calves and lambs as due to a micrococcus which exists generally 
in the false membranes along with bacilli. Loffier, however, 
showed the disease to be due to a long wavy bacillus, which 
has since been described by Bang as the bacillus of necrosis. 
It is sometimes the cause of necrosis in other parts of the body. 
MTadyean has described it in the livers of oxen {vide Multiple 
Disseminated Necrosis of Liver). 



I40 MEAT INSPECTION 

The microbe measures from 4 to 50 yu,, or longer, and it is 
often associated with other microbes. 

It is difficult to stain, but Kiihne's or Loffler's blue suit 
best. 

Le-siojis.— Grey necrotic patches covered by an exudate are 
found on the buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane. 

The necrosis may have spread to the respiratory or 
alimentary membranes, or it may have been inoculated at 
the feet. 

/■nspeci-ioTi.— The bacillus tends to remain local, in the sense 
that the infection does not become generalised. Seizure of the 
lesions is all that is necessary if the flesh be of good quality. 

ASPEEGILLOSIS 

This is the name given by continental authors to lesions 
caused by the Aspergillus fumigatus in the bodies of animals. 

Animals affected. — '^Yohahly all animals are susceptible to 
aspei'gillosis, but the disease has most frequently been met 
with in man and birds. It has been seen in fowls, ducks, 
geese, turkeys, and pigeons. Lucet has very fully described a 
case of aspergillosis in the cow, and along with Thary he has 
recorded one in the horse. 

The Aspergillus fumigatus.— This parasite belongs to the 
class of moulds. It is found in the form of spores, or tube- 
like filaments which are partitioned. The spores are sj^herical 
bodies, measuring about 4 yu, in length. The latter are numer- 
ously present in the blood stream and organs in acute cases. 
The filaments are found most aljundantly on the surfaces of 
membranes such as the pleura, the peritoneum, the bronchial 
membrane, and that of the air-sacs in birds. 

In the air passages the parasite attains its fullest develop- 
ment. Cover-glass preparations show that it consists of fila- 
ments (liypTicB) felted together into a mass {mycelium^. Erom 
the mycelium spore-bearing hyphse arise. The masses are of 
a grey green or brown colour. Occasionally the parasite 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 141 

assumes the appearance of the ray fungus in the tissues 
(Laulanie). The spores can be seen in cover-glass preparations 
made from the blood and organs in acute cases. They can 
also be found in sections of the affected organs. In the more 
chronic lesions of the organs a few filaments can be seen, but 
they seem to disappear from the oldest nodules. 

The parasite can be stained by Gram's method and by 
carboi-thionin blue. 

iesious. — Acute cases are marked by hemorrhagic lesions 
of the septiciBmia type. This was the form observed by Lucet 
in the cow and the horse. Haemorrhages are present under 
the skin, in the muscles and internal organs. The serous 
membranes are ecchymosed, and the cavities conta n blood- 
tinged fluid. 

In chronic cases nodules may be found in any of the organs 
—the lungs, the liver, the spleen, the kidney, the bowel, and 
even in the muscles. These nodules vary in size from a pin- 
head to a pea. They are greyish in colour, and the older ones 
are of fibrous consistence. They are very like some forms of 
true tubercle. Histologically the youngest nodides are com- 
posed of leucocytes. Giant cells may be found at a later stage, 
and fibrous tissue is formed at the periphery of the oldest 
nodules. The presence of the parasite has been already referred 
to. When the membranes are invaded, an exudate is present, 
and masses of filaments may be found on its surface. This is 
well seen in the bronchial tubes and in the air-sacs of birds. 
On the peritoneum of the goose, Lucet has described plaques 
of exudate about the size of a threepenny-piece. 

Inspection-.— It is difficult to experimentally infect animals 
with the Aspergillus fumigatus l3y the ingestion method. In 
experiments in which the results were positive, lesions were 
found in the lungs, but not in the bowel (Lucet, Ren on). It 
is possible, then, that infection took place by way of the trachea 
from the mouth. Local lesions should of course be removed, 
but it will be unnecessary to condemn the carcase except in 
acute cases. 



1 4 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

BACTERIAL NECROSIS 

There are several vaiieties of bacteria which cause local 
death in tissues. For examplCj the l^acillus of diphtheria and the 
tubercle bacillus have this action. The lesions to which this 
cha23ter is consecrated, however, are only of local importance ; 
that is to say, the causal agents remain in the regions where 
they have been arrested, and no systemic disturbance occui's, 
other than that which follows upon partial destruction of an 
organ. It may, of course, be serious enough, if the destroyed 
part be a vital one. 

Animals affected.— It seems probable that necrosis of tissue 
may be caused in every species of animal by certain microbes, 
whose effects are almost entirely confined to the invaded parts. 
In most cases, however, these microljes can only act on tissues 
already injured by other bacteria, or on those which have had 
their vitality impaired by other influences, such as mechanical 
injury. Thus Bang attributed to a widely disseminated micro- 
organism, which he called " the bacillus of neci'osis," the necrotic 
lesions of the bowel which are seen in swine fevei' ; but the 
reseai'ches of M'Fadyean show that these are most probaljly 
due to the bacillus of swine fever itself. The same microbe has 
been found in necrotic areas in vaiious pai'ts of the bodies of 
other animals— for example, on the coronet of the ox, in the 
lungs, and in the liver. Loffler's bacillus of diphtheiia in calves 
is apparently the same organism. M'Fadyean has desciibed 
a l^acterial necrosis in the livers of oxen and sheep ; and the 
cause of the former, at least, is a micro-organism morphologic- 
ally identical to the others. The microbes present in the lesion 
of the sheep were different. 

Bacterial necrosis of the liver is comparatively common in 
oxen slaughtered at the Edinburgh abattoir. The Editor meets 
there with at least half a dozen cases every year, and he has 
several times received affected livers from various parts of the 
country. He has never met, however, with a case in the sheep. 
The necrotic lesions described by Schmorl about the head and 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 143 

antei'ior mucous membranes of rabbits are apparently due 
to the same bacillus ; but in this form the disease is of little im- 
portance, since it was confined to the animals of an experimental 
institution. Hamilton has desciibed this Ijacterial necrosis 
in the liver of a donkey. It is not to be understood, however, 
that necrosis is always bacterial in origin. It may occui- from 
injuries and interference with nutrition without the inter- 
vention of microbes. 

The microbe. —The bacillus of necrosis, the most impoi'tant 
to the Meat Inspector, assumes more than one form. The 
elements are composed of rods measuring 3 to 4 /u- x • 8, and long 
unsegmented threads from 40 to 100 ^tt in length. Coccus forms 
are also described,' but it is not clear that they constitute 
a form of the same microbe. Cocci only were present in 
MTadyean's case in the slieei^, and in the lesions of the 
donkey's liver desciibed by Hamilton. 

The mici'o-organism is apparently saf)i'oi}h}'tic in charactei', 
and can only exceptionally become pathogenic without the 
aid of a predisposing influence, such as a mixed infection. 

The elements stain best by Klihne's or LofHer's methods, 
but in the well-developed lesions it is exceedingly difficult to 
put them in evidence. M'Fadyean obtained his best j^repara- 
tions by staining sections of fresh (unhardened) livers containing 
recent lesions. The microbes are found just outside the dead 
area. 

LesioTi/S.— Necrotic tissue is much paler than normal, and it 
is fii'mer owing to coagulation of its albumin. On the surface 
of the body it becomes white, dry, and leathery. 

Liver. — Disseminated necrosis is the name given by 
MTadyean to the bacterial lesion in the liver of the ox. In 
95 per cent, of the cases observed by the Editor the necrosis 
was accompanied by fatty infiltration of the liver tissue, 
and by cirrhosis due to the presence of flukes in the bile 
ducts. 

The organ in such cases is much enlarged. It is harder 
than normal, and the section is of a yellowish red colour. The 



1 44 ME A T INSPE CTION 

liver, however, may show no other change than that of muhiple 
necrosis. Under the cajDsule and in the substance of the organ, 
pale greyish or yellow areas are seen, which in shape approach 
the circular. They are firmer than the normal liver tissue, 
from which they are abruptly marked off by an irregular line. 




Fig. 18. — Section of the liver of an ox, showing the lesions of bacterial necrosis. 

— M'Fadyean. 



The areas on the surface are hardly raised above its level. In 
size they vary from that of a join's head to that of a shilling. 
Sometimes two neighbouring patches have come into contact 
and formed a figure of eight. Their number varies from one 
or two to several dozens. 

Under the microscope the liver structure is beyond recog- 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 145 

nition in tlie dead parts, except in the most recent lesions. In 
tliese tlie cell outlines can be dimly seen. The protoj^lasm 
of the dead cells is granular. Their nuclei do not take up the 
nuclear stains, but those of a few leucocytes can be made out. 
The line of separation from the normal tissue is marked by a 
dense collection of phagocyte cells whose nuclei stain deeply. 
Many of the liver cells in other parts are infiltrated by fat, and 
some-are replaced by fibrous tissue, but the latter lesions have 
no direct connection with the necrosis. 

Znspec^'ioTi.— There is no direct evidence to show that any 
harm would follow if a human being were to partake of organs 
showing the above lesions; but, according to Schmorl, the necrosis 
bacillus, aided by the microbes of suppuration, sometimes retards 
the healing process of wounds in man. The damaged organs, 
then, might possiljly occasion trouble if used for food. Necrosis, 
however, no matter what the cause be, renders the affected 
parts unfit for sale, and on this account alone the inspector 
is justified in seizing them. In the case of the liver, the whole 
organ should be seized. As the lesions to all intents and purposes 
remain local, no harm can result from passing the carcases 
after they have been removed. Such carcases are often of very 
good quahty. 

SWINE FEVER 
Hog Choleea (America) 

A contagious disease of swine, caused by the bacillus of 
swine fever. 

It is characterised by an erythematous eruption on the 
skin, the formation of ulcers on the alimentary tract, and in 
the acute stages by intoxication. 

Animals ajfected. — Swine fever, as met with in this country, 
may be looked upon as a disease special to the pig, since we 
never hear of it attacking other species, although the oppor- 
tunities for such an accident occurring must be frequent. 
Galtier, however, savs that he has seen it transmitted to the 



146 MEAT INSPECTION 

sheep and goat. The same authority also claims to have in- 
fected oxen, dogs, horses, and fowls. Nocard reports the 
accidental transmission of the disease to fowls. Young pigs 
are most susceptible to the disease. 

The mia'o&e. — According to the most recent researches of 
MTadyean, the microbe of swine fever is a bacillus measuring 
1-2 /i X ■ 6, rounded at its ends, and motile. It can be stained 
by the methyl-blue preparations, and some of the rods show 
polar staining. It does not stain by Gram's method. Pre- 






.1 ^ 






\ ,• •, 



Fig. 19. — Bacillus of swine fever (Zeiss, oil immersion, 
i^)- — M'Fadyean. 

parations are best obtained in the acute stages from the fresh 
mesenteric glands. 

Lesiojis.— The principal lesions are found in connection 
with the alimentary tract. In acute cases of short duration 
they ^re not marked. If the cases are isolated, considerable 
difhculty will be experienced in making a diagnosis. There is 
generally a purple discoloration on the skin of the hocks, the 
ears, and the under surface of the aljdomen. The alimentary 
mucous membrane shows areas of congestion, maybe in the 
pharynx, the stomach, and the small or large intestines. 

The congested parts vary in colour from a reddish tinge to a 



Plate xii. 




Bxternal surface of Bar of Pig, showing discolouration seen in Swine Fever. 




Ileo-caecal Valve of young Pig, 
showing plugged Gland FoUicles 
a, a, a, and one Ulcer at base b. 
1. A detached plug. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 



147 



hsemorrhagic colour, and in size from a pin-head to a large area. 
Sometimes in the early stages there are patches or areas 
of diphtheritic inflammation in the posterior portion of the 
small intestine, in the caecum and the colon. 

The most characteristic lesion, however, is the swine fever 
ulcer. The action of the bacillus is to produce necrosis of the 
tissues. This necrosis begins as a small diphtheritic (necrotic) 
patchr about the size of a split-pea, and it spreads outwards 




Fig. 20. — Swine fever ulcers on large Intestine of pig. 



in a circular manner. The necrotic patch is by and by cast 
off, leaving an ulcer. The ulcers commonly vary in size from 
that of a threepenny piece to that of a shilling, but they may 
be much larger. The larger ones are distinctly raised and 
rounded at the margin. The necrotic tissue in the centre 
generally becomes black from the formation of sulphide of iron. 
The ulcer may heal, leaving a cicatrix. This ulceration seldom 
extends beyond the muscular coats, and perforation of the 
iDowel is very uncommon. In old cases the intestinal wall 



1 48 ME A T INSPE CTION 

becomes thickened, and ulcerating nodules may be found pro- 
jecting into the tube. The commonest site of the ulcers is the 
large bowel, particularly the caecum in the region of the ileo- 
caecal valve. They are also very often found in the colon, and. 
they may extend right back to the rectum. In the small in- 
testine they are sometimes found at the posterior part. Earely 
are they seen in the stomach, and it is exceptional to find them 
on the upper surface of the tongue or on the mucous membrane 
of the cheeks. 

The histological examination of the lesions shows that at 
the seats of diphtheritic inflammation the epithelial cells are 
dead. Many of the glands have lost their epithelial lining, 
and they contain a multitude of different microbes. The 
glands of the abdominal cavity, and frequently those of other 
regions, are congested (sti-awbeny glands). Sometimes they 
shoAV necrotic patches. The cavity may contain an excess of 
fluid. 

Liver.— The liver may show nothing more than cloudy 
swelling of its cells, but sometimes the organ is the seat of a . 
multiple necrosis, a lesion which reseml3les that of tuberculosis. 

According to M'Fadyean, swine fever bacilli are found in 
the necrotic areas. 

Spleen.— The spleen is usually normal, but occasionally one 
finds necrotic patches on its substance. 

Kidneys.— The kidneys may be normal, but numerous 
small haemorrhages are often found in the substance, and 
occasionally a large amount of coagulated blood is discovered 
in the pelvis. Parenchymatous inflammation has also been 
described. 

Lungs and pleura.— Li cases of swine fever the lungs are 
often found to be consolidated. The pleura is sometimes in- 
flamed, and the chest may contain fluid. The pneumonia 
may be either lobar or lobular, but according to MTadyean it 
is very seldom due to the swine fever bacillus. The probability 
is that the pneumonia is in most cases a complication due to 
the action of saprophytic germs on an enfeebled organism. 



Plate xiil. 




Section of Lymphatic Gland. 
Swine Fever. 




Ecchymosis on the Endocardium of 
Pig. Swine Fever. 



\ 



«« 



« 




Section through Muscle of Pig (Swine Fever), showing extravasation 
of blood into the Muscle, Connective Tissue, and Fat. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 149 

The Editor lias seen many cases in which the hmg lesions were 
due to strongyli (<Sf. paradoxus). The true swine fever lesion 
of the lung is a necrosis. 

Heart.— The muscle of the organ is very little altered, but 
petechial liEemorrhages may be found on its membranes. 

Inspection. — As this disease is not communicaljle to human 
beings, the inspection resolves itself into a question of what is 
marTvetable and what is not. The carcases of pigs killed in the 
earliest stages often set firmly and present no alDnormal appear- 
ance. Such carcases might be passed wuthout detriment to 
the health or fastidiousness of the consumer. When the disease 
is developed, however, small hsemorrhages may be found under 
the skin and in the muscles ; the flesh is fevered, fiabb}'', and 
often oedematous. The usual practice is to seize carcases of the 
latter description as well as those which are emaciated. Pouchet 
and others have reported cases of poisoning in human beings 
from eating the flesh of pigs killed while suffering from swine 
fever, but it is very far from certain that the swine fever was 
actually to Ijlame. 

Application of Contagious Diseases of Animals Act.— The 
Swine Eever Order of 1894 (sec. 7) forbids the utilisation of the 
flesh as food, by requiring the carcase of a pig affected with or 
suspected of swine fever at the time of its death to be destroyed. 
Suspected does not ajDply here to animals which have been 
killed and found healthy, although they have been in contact 
with the sick. 

SWINE EEYSIPELAS 

This is a disease peculiar to swine, and caused by the 
entrance into the body of the bacillus of Sioine Erysipelas, or 
Rouget du Pore of the Erench vetei'inarians. 

On the continent of Europe swine erysipelas is described 
as virulent and contagious, but that desci'iption does not suit 
the disease as we meet with it in this country. Here it is not 
at all common. Moreover, neai'ly all the cases which have been 



T50 MEAT INSPECTION 

recorded have occurred sporadically. In the acute or septi- 
C8Bmic forms the disease is characterised by fever, intoxication, 
and gasti'o-enteritis. In the more chronic forms a rash 
apjDears on the skin, and vegetations frequently foi'm on 
the cardiac valves. 

Animals affected. -The disease is met with mostly in adult 
pigs; young animals up to about four months are said to 
possess a marked degree of immunity. 

The microbe. - The microbe is a fine rod-Rke bacillus, 
measuring about 2 /j, x -3. It is rounded at the ends, non- 
motile, and stains equally throughout. It stains by the methyl- 
blue preparations and by Gram's -method. It is found in the 
blood in small numbers, but preparations are best made from 
the spleen, the lm23hatic glands, or bone-marrow. 

Lesions.— In acute forms, where death has supervened in 
a few hours, there may be no skin eruption {Rouget hlanc). 
Usually, however, there is a reddish or violet rash on the same 
regions as in swine fever. This rash is sometimes spot-like.-^ 
In recovering cases the skin over the part may slough. Undei- 
the skin and in the muscles one finds small hsemoi'rhages. 

The muscles are usually paler than normal in the parts 
where there are no haemorrhages. They are often flaccid, 
oedematous, and soapy to the feel, if the pig has died or 
been killed in the acute stages. The fat, too, does not set 
firmly. 

Stomach and intestines. — The gastric and intestinal mem- 
branes are swollen and congested. In the region of Peyer's 
patches the engorgement is specially marked. No distinct 
ulcers are found, but the membrane may show abrasions. The 

^ In twent3'-oue cases diagnosed as urticaria of swine, Jenson found the 
bacillus of swine erysipelas in the shin lesions. In some of the cases, vegetations 
were present on the cardiac valves, and in others the bacilli were found in the 
spleen. Jensen says that many of the Danish veterinary surgeons look upon 
urticaria of swine as a contagious disease. It would be interesting to know if 
similar bacilli are present in the lesions of the skin in cases of urticaria of swine 
in this country, in which swine erysipelas in its virulent form is almost never 
met with. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 151 

peritoneum shows eccliymoses, and the abdominal cavity may 
contain an excess of fluid. 

Spleen. —The spleen is engorged and softened. This lesion 
might easily raise a suspicion of anthrax, but in swine erysipelas 
swelling of the throat is absent. The bacteriological examina- 
tion of the spleen-pulp will- in most cases put the diagnosis 
beyond doubt. 

^iver.— The liver may be little altered, or it may be en- 
gorged. 

Kidneys.— The kidneys often show multiple small haemor- 
rhages in their substances. 

Glands. -The glands are swollen and congested. 

Lungs. -In the acute stages the lungs are congested. The 
chest cavity may contain an excess of fluid, and the serous 
membranes show eccliymoses. 

Heart. -In the more chronic form, such as that met with 
in this country, vegetations form on the cardiac valves, and 
all the results of valvular disease may follow. The valves on 
the left side are most frequently affected. The lesion is caused 
by the bacillus of swine erysipelas, which may be demonstrated 
in the superficial layers of the vegetations. 

Inspection. -This disease is not connnunicable to human 
beings, so that the insjDector, without fear of mishap to the 
consumer, may pass those carcases which are marketable. It 
must not be foi'gotten, however, that the bacillus invades the 
blood stream., so that the flesh may be and often is virulent, 
as far as the pig is concerned. There is a possibility of fresh 
centres of the disease being established in piggeries by the 
uncontrolled sale of pork from affected j^igs ; for, as every one 
knows, the parings from the kitchen and the flesh factories 
often find their way into the pig's pail. The authorities, how- 
ever, would he acting ultra vires if on the lattei- grounds they 
withdrew the flesh from the market, since the Board of Agri- 
culture has as yet applied no restrictions. 

If the animals have been slaughtered in the initial stage of 
a less acute attack, the flesh may be quite marketa1}le. Ostertag, 



152 MEAT INSPECTION 

liowevei', says that it is liable to putrefy quickly, and advises 
that the time which has elapsed since slaughter be taken into 
account before the flesh is jDassed. In this country, of course, 
one would have no guarantee that the flesh would pass 
immediately into consumption after it left the abattoir. In 
the later stages of the disease the flesh is fevered, and shows 
haemorrhages into the tissues. Such carcases are unmarket- 
able. When the heart lesion is all the evidence that remains, 
the carcase is usualty fit for human food, unless there be marked 
emaciation. In the absence of the viscera one may with 
advantage make a bacterialogical examination of the bone- 
marrow. 

CONTAGIOUS PNEUMONIA OF SWINE 

This is the disease which in Germany is known as Schweine- 
seuche, and in America as swine plague. It is characterised by 
inflammation of the lungs and alterations of a septicsemic type 
in other organs. It is doubtful if the disease exists in this 
country. 

Animals affected.— The pig is the only animal which con- 
tracts the disease naturally. 

The microbe. — According to Loffler and Schiitz, this disease 
is caused by an oval bacillus measuring from 1 to 2 /a x • 5. It 
belongs to the somewhat numerous class of micro-organisms 
of the fowl cholera bacillus type, the characteristic of which is 
that the baciUi stain at their poles and margins, while an un- 
coloured space is left in the centre. It stains by Loffler's or 
Iviihne's blue jDreparations, but Gram's method fails. Pre- 
parations are best obtained from the lung lesions, the exudations, 
and the bronchial lymph glands. 

Lesions.— The skin shows patches of discoloration as in the 
other contagious diseases of swine. The chief changes, how- 
ever, are found in the lungs and pleura. 

Lungs.— They show jDatches of hepatisation, varjang in size 
from a pea to much larger. These consohdated areas show a 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 153 

great tendency to undergo necrosis in the centre ; they may 
even become caseous. 

Pleura. — On the pleura one finds areas of fibrinous inflam- 
mation, which usually correspond to the consolidated parts of 
the lung. An exudate is present in the chest cavity. The 
pericardium often shows alterations similar to those found on 
the pleura. Schiitz has also found caseous joatches on the 
tonsils, in the bones and lymph glands of some cases. 

/7ispec^io7i. — Schweineseuche has never been communi- 
cated to human beings, although ample oi3portunity for such 
an accident to occur, were it possible, has existed in Germany. 

Ostertag advises that the flesh of pigs be absolutely con- 
demned, when, in addition to grave lesions on the pleura, 
icterus is present. 

This disease is not scheduled under the Contagious Diseases 
(Animals) Act., 



CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA OE CATTLE 

A contagious disease peculiar to the ox, and charactei'ised 
by inflammatory changes in the lungs and on the pleurae. 

Tlxe microbe.— The causal microbe of this disease has been 
the object of much fruitless search. 

According to Nocard, it is so small that one can just see it as 
a refractile point when the highest magnifying powei'S are used. 
He obtained cultures of this almost infinitesimal object by 
inoculating a special medium, which was then enclosed in 
collodion capsules and inserted into the peritoneal cavities of 
rabbits. After several weeks' incubation in this way, he was 
able, by inoculating the culture under the skin of oxen, to pro- 
duce local lesions similar to those caused by injection of the 
virulent lymph obtained from natural cases. 

Lesions.— They are almost entii'ely confined to the chest 
organs, although one may occasionally meet with local cutan- 
eous swellings and arthiitis. The tissue in front of the chest 



^54 



ME A 2'' INSPECTION 



is often (Edematous. On opening the chest one often finds a 
considerable amount of greyish turbid fluid inside. The pleura 
in certam parts is opaque, thickened, and covei'ed with a dense 
false membrane of a yellowish colour. The two suiiaces may 
be adherent. Pericarditis may be present. The glands are 
swollen and oedematous. 

The lung lesion vaiies in extent. There may be only a 
small area affected, or the greater part of both lungs may be 




Fig. 21. — Section of lung showing the lesions of contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia. — Walley. 

a, Subpleural tissue distended by lymph. 
6, Dilated veins in interlobular septa. 

c, Interlobular tissue. 

d, Consolidated lobule. 

consolidated. Emphysema is present in the still open pai'ts, 
and there may Ije ai'eas of htiemorrhagic infarction. The con- 
solidated areas stand out prominenth^; they ai-e aii'l(?ss, and they 
sink in water. On section the most evident change is great 
thickening of the interlobular septa and peribronchial tissue. 
This is dae to distension of the Ij'mphatic vessels, from which 
a straw-coloured lymph is discharged. The smaller tubes ai-e 
often plugged by a fibrinous exudate. The hepatised lobules 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 155 

are of different colours. Some are brick-red, others are gi-eyisli- 
yellow or greyisli-red, and when a very large number of red 
cells have been thrown out into the aveoli the lobules are 
dark red, like venous blood. These changes give the section 
a marbled appearance. In old cases one finds necrosed 
areas of vai-ying size, whicli are often encapsuled by fibrous 
tissue. 

. ¥he only other condition which resembles that of contagious 
pleuro-pneumonia is the so-called septic jDneumonia seen in 
recently calved cows. In the latter cases, however, the marbling 
is Jiot so distinct, the septa are usually less distended, the sti'aw- 
coloured lymph is absent, the tissue is very oedematous, and it 
usually stinks. The microscopic appearance is less characteristic 
than the macroscopic. The interlobular, peribronchial, and 
perivascular lymphatics are inuch distended. The septa ai'e 
invaded at their margins by round cells, but only in the very 
chronic cases does one find fibrous jDroliferation. 

The contents of the alveoli vary. Those neai* the septa 
contain a great deal of fibiin, but very few cells. Others con- 
tain leucocytes, red cells, and fibrin in varying propoiiion ; 
a few detached epithelial cells may be present. In the very 
red-coloured lobules and the areas of luBmorrhagic infarction, 
one finds a dense collection of red blood corpuscles. Some of 
the blood vessels contain clots. Pei'haps the most characteiistic 
feature of contagious pleuro-pneumonia is the amount of fibrin 
present in the exudate. In the other forms of pneumonia one 
seldom finds much fibrin. 

Insjjection.— It is unlikely that pleuro-pneumonia will ever 
again gain a serious footing in this country, if the present 
regulations continue to exist. During the ravages of the 
disease the slaughter order was mercilessly applied, and one 
had ample opportunit.y of observing the flesh in all stages 
of the malady. 

In the acute stages the flesh is fevered and soapy. It does 
not set well. When a large area of lung is consolidated, and 
when there is nnich fluid in the chest or peiicardium, the flesh 



1 5 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

is CBclematous and flabby. This condition is seen well at the 
anteiior and lower part of the chest, and this led to the 
term " wet goat " being applied to the disease by Edinburgh 
fleshers. 

In the above conditions the flesh is unmai-ketable. When 
the disease has reached the chronic stage, and the lesions are 
not great in extent, the flesh is normal in appearance, and may 
be passed if the carcase is not emaciated. The universal rule 
in Edinbui-gh was to joass carcases when the flesh showed no 
departure from the normal. The affected portions of the 
pleurae were removed by stripping. In bad cases, the portion 
of the fore-quarter contiguous to the iDleuiitic lesion, or even 
the whole quarter, was retained. 



FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 

Eczema Epizootica 

A contagious and inoculable disease, characteiised by fever 
and the appearance of a vesicular eruption on different parts 
of the bod}^ 

Animals affected.— All animals may be infected, but the 
disease is mostly seen in those -^vhose flesh is used for human 
food. The ox is most frequently attacked, the sheep and pig 
suffer less often. It is transmissible to man. 

The microbe.— Notwithstanding the numerous researches 
of many investigators who have worked at the bacteriology 
of this disease, the specific agent remains to be discovered. 
That it is not due to a germ of ordinary size is shown by 
the recent inquiries of lioffler and Frosch, who found that the 
infecting agent is not retained in the poi'es of a porcelain 
filter. 

Lesi ons. —Tlie lesions are found chiefly in connection Avith 
the mucous membrane covering the pad and tongue, on the 
skin between the cla^s, around the coronet and at the base 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 



157 



of tlie supernumerary digits. In the cow the skin of the 
udder and teats is a favourite seat of the erujDtion. The 
eruption may, however, appear on any mucous membrane ; 
for instance, on the ahmentary or broncliial, or on the parts 
of the body where the skin is thin. 

In the earher stages the part is swollen and congested ; 
later a vesicle, connuonly about the size of a florin, appears. 
One»usually finds, however, that the vesicle has burst. The 
remains of the membrane, white and bleached-looking, covers 
a raw red sore. Often the cutaneous sores are suppurating, 
and in old cases the hoof may be separating from above down- 




EiG. 22. — Tongue and pad of ox, showing the lesions of foot and 
mouth disease. 



wards. In the more severe cases there may be abscesses in 
the lungs and liver, pneumonia, and lesions on the stomach 
and bowel. 

In all stomachs there may be patches of congestion, and 
even ulceration. The small bowel may also be congested and 
ecchymosed. In very bad cases all the appearances of septi- 
caemia are present. 

/fl.spec^'ioTi. — There is no case on record of foot and mouth 
disease having been conti'acted by human beings through 
eating the flesh of affected animals, although there is a slight 
danger of the butcher being inoculated through wounds. Most 
of the recorded cases of transmission have been due to drinking 
milk contaminated by the virus, but they are few in comparison 



158 



ME A T INSPE CTION 



with the number of cows attacked during an outbreak. The 
present regulations of the Board of Agriculture would debar 
affected animals from being moved to the abattoir; but in 
former times many were slaughtered for food. The carcases of 
these animals were usually of good quality, and quite market- 
able after the parts containing lesions had been removed. 




Fig. 23. 



-Foot of ox affected with foot and mouth 
disease. — Walley. 



a, Raw surface at base of supernumerary digits. 
6, Horn beginning to separate, 
c, Ruptured vesicle. 

In cases of a malignant type, and in those in which the 
temperature has been high, the flesh is fevered, and the carcase 
is like that of an animal which has suffered from septicaemia. 
A carcase of this description would call for seizure apart 
altogether from the disease under discussion. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 15^ 

VARIOLA 
Pox 

Tlie term Variola is applied to a class of contagious dis- 
eases of animals, which is characterised by fever and a vesico- 
pnstular eruption. 

Animals a^ecfefZ.— Variolous diseases have been described 
in all the domesticated animals, and even in poultry. Horse 
pox (V. equina), cow-pox (V. vaccina), the pox of the goat and 
that of the camel, are apparently the same disease. Sheeji-jDox 
(V. ovina) is a different disease, which is peculiar to the sheep. 
The variola of the pig (V. suilla) is rare, and has not l^een the 
subject of much study. Trasbot considers it tme maladie 
propre. Friedberger and Frohner state that it originates from 
small-pox of man. It is worthy of note, however, that pigs can 
be experimentally infected with cow-pox (Chauveau), and that 
Gerlach has communicated V. suilla to the goat. The cases 
described as variola in poultry seem to have been due to 
gregarincB ; fowls are refactory to inoculation with the vaccine 
virus. 

It would be out of place to discuss the much-vexed question of 
the identity of cow-pox with small-pox of man ; it is sufiicient to 
say that the bulk of evidence points to them l^eing two different, 
though neighbouring diseases, and that the disease of the horse's 
legs, characterised by elephantiasis and seborrhoea, has usually 
nothing to do with horse-pox, although the horse-pox erui^tion 
on the limbs may end in a somewhat similar condition. 

The microbe.—'No specific infecting agent has as yet been 
demonstrated to be the cause of variola in any animal. 

LesioTis. — Vaccinia is a benign disease. It is not now com- 
monly met with, except in certain parts of England. In the 
cow the eruption is met with mainly on the teats and udder ; the 
mucous membranes and the skin of the body are seldom the seats 
of lesions ; a generalised eruption is exceptionally met with. 
In the male the eruption appears on the scrotum. In the calf 



1 60 ME A T INSFE CTION 

it is found on tlie muzzle. In the pig the eruption occurs on 
the snout and the mammge ; sometimes it is generalised. 

On the skin it begins by redness and swelling. This is 
followed usually by a papule about the size of a lentil, which 
becomes vesicular at its summit, then bursts. A thick yellow 
or blood-tinged lymph exudes and forms a brownish crust. 
This is the so-called pustule. The discharge, however, is not 
13US in the popular sense, unless the organisms of suppuration 
have gained access to the wounds. The eruption in its dry 
stage consists of a central scab, slightly raised, and a peripheral 
bluish-looking ring of new epithelium. The skin outside this 
is usually of a rosy tint. On the thinner mucous membranes 
the ei'uption is more vesicular in character. By mechanical 
irritation the pustules may have been converted into lai-ge 
sores. 

Inspection.— It is by direct hioculation that man contracts 
vaccinia. Variolous cases seldom come into our abattoirs, nor 
is much inspection called for in connection with them. The blood 
and lymph are hot virulent, unless they be taken from the lesions. 
Moreovei', the virulence is easily destroyed b}^ heat. The flesh 
is usuall}^ of good aspect, and may be passed after the parts show- 
ing the eruption have been removed. This is. generally done 
in the natural course of dressing. 

Variola Ovina 

This disease calls for special remark, for although Great 
Britain has been free from it since 1862, the disease still 
exists in countries from which mutton may be imported. Some 
breeds of sheep suffer but little from an attack; others are 
fatally affected. The eruption appears generally on the external 
mucous membranes and on the parts of the body where the 
wool is thin. The papules vary in size from a lentil to a six- 
penny piece ; they are fiat and hard. In malignant cases the 
alimentary and respiratory membranes are ecchymosed, the 
glands are congested, and all the signs of septicflemia are present. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES i6i 

The lungs often show patches of consohdation, tliey may even 
be gangrenous. 

Inspection.— Y. Ovina is not transmissible to man. Attempts 
to ex|)erimentally infect human beings have failed (JSTocard). 
Bosc and Pourquier, however, communicated to the Moscow 
Congress of 1897 a sujDposed case of transmission to a woman 
b}^ the accidental inoculation of sores on the hands. 

4n malignant cases the flesh is fevered, and small haemor- 
rhages are found under the skin and on the serous membranes. 
The carcase is of bad aspect and does not set well. Such car- 
cases are unmarketable, and should be condemned. In the 
milder cases the flesh is usually good, and may be passed after 
the lesions have been removed. 



CATTLE PLAGUE 
ElNDERPEST 

Cattle plague is a contagious eruptive fever caused by an 
undetermined specific agent. 

Animals affected.— Oxen are by far the most frequently 
attacked. Sheep and goats are less often the victims of the 
disease. Some races of pigs (Chinese) are susceptible to 
inoculation, and they also take the disease naturally. Wild 
ruminants are susce|)tible, and, according to Leblanc, the 
camel may suffer from rinderpest. Man, the horse, and the 
dog, are immune. 

The micro&e.— Notwithstanding the researches of Semmer 
and Klebs, Nocard, Koch, Eddington, and many others, the 
causal agent of rinderpest remains undiscovered. 

Lesions. — The characteristic lesions of cattle plague are 
localised on the mucous membranes, especially on that of the 
alimentary tract. Sometimes there is an ei'uption on the skin. 
In the mouth one finds patches of intense congestion and 
desquamation. They are pai'ticularly evident inside the lips, 
at the posterior part of the mouth, and in the fauces. The 



1 6 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

first tliree stomachs of the ruminant may show patches of 
congestion. The abomasum towards the pylorus sliows hsenior- 
rhagic patches, and there may be erosions and an exudate on 
its mucous surface. 

In the small intestines the mucous membrane is intensely 
inflamed, and a diphtheritic exudate is present in patches at 
certain parts. Peyer's patches and the solitary glands are 
swollen and congested. In the large intestine, pai'ticularly in 
the caecum, one finds the mucous membrane swollen and 
congested. In the rectum the mucous membrane is intensely 
red, and the redness is broken by lines of greyish exudate 
(zebra markings). The liver is swollen and cloudy; its gall- 
bladder is distended. The spleen is not enlarged. The kidneys 
may be normal or they may be congested. 

The glands are often hsemorrhagic. The serous mem- 
branes are ecchymosed. The blood in the veins is of a purple 
colour, and the microscope shows the leucoc}'tes to be increased 
in number, while the red cells are distorted— poikilocytosis. 
The respiratory membrane may also show congestion and 
ecchymoses. The lungs are often congested and emphyse- 
matous. The above lesions are not all constant. According 
to Verney, the most constant lesions are inflammation of the 
nasal cavities and abomasum, ecch}'moses on the mucous 
membrane of the caecum, and zebra markings on the 
rectum. 

//is-pecHoTi.— The flesh in the advanced stages presents a 
magenta hue ; it may be of a mahogany colour, or very dark 
red. It gives off a special odour. In the earlier stages it is 
not much altered, but notwithstanding this the majority of 
experts are unanimous in condernning such flesh as an article 
of human food ; and here, as in the case of rabies and 
anthrax, the Legislature has decreed its absolute destruction. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 163 

MALIGNANT CATARRH OF THE OX 

Malignant Oataeehal Fevee 

This is a disease cliaracterised by septic inflammation of the 
mucous membranes of the eyes, the anterior parts of the 
respiratory passages, the mouth, and the bowel. In severe cases, 
symptoms of intoxication are also well marked. The disease is 
of bacterial origin, but it is usually sporadic in chai'acter, and 
has no great tendency to spread from animal to animal. Some- 
times, however, it assumes enzootic characters among animals 
subjected to bad hygienic surroundings. Thus it is seen to 
affect a large number of beasts which have come a sea voyage 
and been battened down between decks. 

Animals affected.— The disease is said to be peculiar to the 
ox, but sheep certainly suft'er, though less frequently, from a 
very similar affection, which has not as yet been the subject 
of special investigation. 

The micro&e. — According to Leclainche, the disease of the 
ox is due to a microbe of the Bacillus coli type. The B. coli 
is an oval rod rounded at its extremities, and measuring 
from 2 to 3 /jb X 1. It stains by the methyl-blue preparations, 
but does not take Gram. The coli is a harmless inhabitant 
of the intestines of many animals, but under certain circum- 
stances it is believed to acquire jDathogenic characters. It is 
but right to say, however, that the name B. coli is often 
applied simply to designate the type of organism, just as one 
speaks of the fowl cholera type. The original catarrhal 
symptoms of the disease become complicated at a later stage, 
owing to invasion of the tissues by other microbes, such as 
those of suppuration. 

Lesions. —In mild oases, and in the early stages, one finds 
congestion of the Schneiderian membrane, a croupous exudate 
on its surface, and a discharge around the nostrils. The con- 
junctiva is also red and swollen. The membranes of the mouth, 
the larynx, pharynx, and bowel are congested. In advanced cases, 



1 64 MEAT INSPE CTION 

the membranes of the nasal cavities, the sinuses, and the larynx, 
are ulcerated and suppurating. The discharge exhales an 
abominable odour. The deeper parts of the respiratory passage 
seldom show alterations, but the lungs may be the seat of 
emphysema. The alterations in connection with the eyes are 
marked; the organs may show signs of keratitis, iiitis, and 
hsemorrhage into the anterior chahiber. The buccal mem- 
brane on the lips, the gums, and base of the tongue shows small 
superficial erosions. The mucous membrane of the stomachs 
and bowel is inflamed and ecchymosed. 

Peyer's patches are often markedly affected. The contents 
of the tube are tinged with blood. The glands are swollen 
and congested. The kidneys are also congested, and the urine 
contained in the bladder may be blood tinged. A pustular 
eruption on the skin has also been noticed. The other alterations 
are those of a septicsemic type of disease— ecchymoses on the 
serous membranes and small haemorrhages into the muscles. 

Inspection. —No bad effects are known to have followed in 
human beings from ingesting the fresh flesh of animals affected 
with this disease. If the animals have been killed in the early 
stages, their flesh is not much altered, and it may be passed. 
It should be remembered, however, that such flesh is liable 
to putrefy quickly. 

In advanced cases the flesh is fevered, and it shows small 
intramuscular haemorrhages. In such cases it is repulsive, and 
should be considered unmarketable. 

Malignant Oataerh of the Sheep 

In sheep, especially hill sheep, a disease characterised by 
somewhat similar lesions to those seen in the above affection 
is met with. The lesions, however, are more suppurative in 
character, and the animals become affected although they are 
living in the open. In the absence of information regarding 
the cause of this affection, one would hardly be justified in 
saying that it is identical with the malignant catarrh of the 



Plate xiv. 




Portion of Third Stomach of Cow. Malignant Catarrh from exposure to foul air 
in the hold of a ship. 




Section of Fourth Stomach of Cow. Malignant Catarrh. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 165 

ox. It looks as if an ordinary catarrh, of the pituitary membrane 
had become converted into a suppurative one by the access of 
pyogenic germs. 

The membrane in bad cases is ulcerated. Small abscesses 
are found on the face in the neighbourhood of the nostrils, and 
sometimes on the bare parts of the body (auto-inoculation). The 
animals lose condition, and in bad cases are much emaciated. 

"/TispeciioTi. —Unless the carcases are much emaciated, they 
may be passed with safety after the affected parts have been 
removed. 

ANTHRAX 

Splenic Fever ; Splenic Apoplexy ; Cumberland Disease 
(Australia) ; " Loodianah " Disease (India) ; Malignant 
Pustule and Woolsorter's Disease in Man 

Anthrax is a disease caused by the anthrax bacillus. 

Animals affected. — H.um.a.n beings are susceptible to an- 
thrax, and they usually contract it by handling animals or 
their products. 

Oxen and sheep are the domesticated animals most fre- 
quently attacked by anthrax. The pig and horse contract 
the disease less frequently. The rabbit is also susceptible, but 
the fowl is refractory to inoculation, except under circumstances 
only realised in experiment. 

The microbe. -When examined in preparations made from 
the organs or blood while they are fresh, the bacillus appears 
in the form of stiff motionless rods, measuring from 6 to 10 yu, 
They can be seen in unstained prej)arations. When stained 
by methyl-blue, one sees a coloured central rod of protoplasm 
bounded by a clear area, which onl}^ takes up the stain at its 
outer margin. Unless a very high magnification be used, the 
ends of the rod appear to be square cut ; but in reality they 
are concave. The bacillus does not sporulate in the body, but 
if the preparation be made from the tissues some time after 
death, unbranched filaments of several elements mav be seen. 



1 66 MEAT INSPECTION 

The bacillus stains well by most of the aniline dye pi'epara- 
tions and by Gram's method. When gentian-violet is used, 
however, the membrane is not differentiated from the rod 
protoplasm, and the bacillus looks thicker. The bacteria of 
putrefaction which invade the tissues from the bowel several 
hours after death have often been mistaken for those of anthrax 
(see Inspection). 

Lesions and infection. — Amni&h may be infected thi'ough 
Avounds, or by way of the alimentary and respiratory tracts. 
The path of infection, however, is not of great interest to 



^<i>S^ '■ -i^ . \|-. 



\ 







Fig. 24. — Anthrax bacilli from blood (Leitz, oil immersion. ^\). 

the Meat Inspector, for no matter how the microbe has 
gained a footing, it finds its way into the blood sti'eam in 
a comparatively short time. 

Animals may ai-rive in the abattoir sick of anthrax ; they 
may have died on the way, or their carcases may come in dressed 
from other places. This is one of the dangers of the foreign 
meat trade. As might be expected, the lesions present will 
be somewhat different in each ease. 

The lesions found in connection with anthrax are of the 
hsemorrhagic septicaemia type. They are not lesions in the 
sense that tubercles are, for the anthrax bacillus acts mainly 
by toxins, which produce a deadly eft'ect in a comparatively 
short time. The local reaction of the tissues and cells is 
almost absent. The bacteria, however, plug many of the 



. BACTERIAL DISEASES 167 

capillaries, and lead to congestion of the organs and hgemor- 
rliages into their tissues. 

If the animal has been brought in dead, there is often a 
bloody discharge from the anus and nostrils. Under the skin 
one sometimes finds an oedematous swelhng, which is due to 
infiltration of the tissues by a yellowish or blood-tinged fluid. 
The latter is not common in cattle, but in affected horses and 
pi^ it is the rule to find oedema in the region of the throat. 
Under the skin one finds small hsemorrhages. 

The flesh is paler than normal, except where haemorrhage 
has taken place ; some time after death it has a salmon colour. 
The embedded glands are hsemorrhagic. The internal organs 
and glands are all congested, and show numerous haemorrhages. 
The latter are well seen on the omentum. The serous cavities 
sometimes contain a reddish fluid, and their membranes are 
ecchymosed. The blood is dark and tarry-looking. 

The spleen is usually much enlarged; it may even be ruptured. 
The pulp is more fluid than normal, and has a tai"-hke 
appearance. Enlargement of the spleen in cases of sudden 
death is considered almost diagnostic of anthrax. Under all 
circumstances, where they are no other lesions to account for 
it, the enlargement should be looked on with great suspicion. 
In exceptional cases, however, the spleen is normal in size. 
When the animal has come in sick and been })led the con- 
gestion is not so well marked, and in the case of a carcase 
sent in dressed many of the important indications have been 
removed. 

Ins'pection.—'No part of an animal that has died or been 
killed during an attack of anthrax should be allowed into the 
market. All parts of the animal ought to be destroyed, and 
the greatest precautions should be exercised by those whose 
duty it is to handle them. When deahng with a fresh case, 
there will seldom be any difficulty about arriving at a correct 
diagnosis. If the spleen is enlarged, a cover-glass preparation 
of the pulp will show hundreds of bacilh. They are fewer in 
cases in which the spleen is normal, but so far as the Editor's 



1 68 MEAT INSPECTION 

experience goes, a few can always be found. In cases which 
have been dead some time before the inspector makes his exam- 
ination, especially if the season be hot, the anthrax organism 
is mixed with others. Some of the latter resemble it sufficiently 
to deceive the inexperienced into mistaking an ordinary case of 
post-mortem putrefaction for anthrax. The bacilli found in 
the former condition, however, are usually larger and thicker, 
and their ends are rounded or pointed. 

These putrefactive germs crowd out the anthrax rods, so 
that a time arrives w4ien it is impossible to say if there are any 
present. In such cases it is advisable to examine blood from 
capillaries equally far removed from the two sources of foreign 
microbes, viz. the external parts and the intestines. The 
Editor's experience has been that a small artery may contain 
no anthrax bacilli, although the case is one of anthrax. The 
kidney, owing to its vascular airangement, and the bone- 
marrow are good organs to examine ; one may even resort to 
sections of the former. 

When dealing wntli a dressed carcase, the difficulties are 
greater. The suspicions of the inspector will be aroused by 
the appearance of the flesh, and jDrobably by the ecchymosed 
condition of the pleurae and peritoneum, if they have not been 
stripped off. He should then cut into the muscles to look for 
haemorrhages, and he should examine the blood. The Editor 
is of opinion that carcases in dispute should be detained in cold 
storage uiitil experimental inoculation has decided the case. 

The Anthrax Order of 1895, sec. 7, requires that the carcase 
of an animal which at the time of its death was aft'ected with 
or suspected of anthrax shall be destroyed. " Suspected " refers 
to animals that have died. 

MALIGNANT CEDEMA 

Traumatic Gangrene 

This is an inoculable disease caused by the bacillus of 
malignant oedema (Koch), the Vihrion septicfue (Pasteur). It 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 



\b^ 



is characterised by intoxication, and by gangrene of certain 
parts. 

A/iimaZs: a;^'ectet^.— Malignant oedema is very rarely seen 
in- animals. It is said to be most frequently met witli in the 
horse. Cases have also been reported in the sheep, ox, and pig. 
These animals certainly suffer sometimes from diseases similar in 
character to malignant oedema, but convincing evidence is still 





/ 



Fig. 25. — Bacillus of malignant cedema from 
subcutaneous fluid, x 1000, 



wanting, that these ai'e caused by the vibrio. Animals, with 
the exception of the cow, can all be experimentally inoculated. 
The cow however, is said to contract the disease naturally. 

The microbe.— The microbe is found in the oedematous 
fluids under the skin and in the cavities. It seems only to 
invade the blood in numbers as death approaches ; it is an 
anaerobe. In preparations made from the fluids of cavities it 
presents itself in the form of long thi-eads and of rods rounded 



1 7 o ME A T INSPE CTION 

at the ends. The rods measure 4 to 5 /i x 1. They are motile, 
and the threads can be seen to cross the field with a twisting 
motion. AVhen the fluid from the tumours is examined some 
threads are found, but the rods are more numerous. Many of 
them are distended by clear spores, which give them a spindle 
or knob-like appearance. 

This microbe might be confounded with the anthrax bacillus, 
or even with the black quarter microbe. The anthrax bacilli, 
however, are generally abundant in the blood, and they ai'e 
square at the ends. They are not motile, nor do the segments 
of the threads ever attain the length of some of those 
seen in the malignant oedema filament. The black quarter' 
bacillus does not form long threads, nor is it so thick as 
the other. 

Lesions. — The lesions consist of superficial oedematous 
swellings which are soon followed by gangrene and emphy- 
sema of the part. The underlying muscles are not so dark 
as in the case of black quarter, and if an odour is gi^'en off, 
it is putrefactive. 

The internal lesions are not impoi'tant. The membranes 
are ecchymosed, and the spleen may be slightly enlarged, but 
not to the same extent as in anthi-ax. 

In the cow the lesions are said to be those of septic 
metritis with emphysema and gangrene of the pelvic tissues ; 
but it is by no means certain that all such cases are due to 
the vibrio. 

Inspection.. — The bacillus soon invades the tissues after 
death. The attempts to infect animals b}' ingestion have given 
negative results ; and it is well known that the bacillus exists 
in the intestines of healthy animals. Nevertheless, infection is 
theoretically possible if a wound exists in the anterior part of 
the alimentary tract. The carcase is generally unmarketable 
on account of the fevei'ed condition of the flesh, which soon 
putrefies. 

Total seizure is justified for the above reasons. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 171 



BLACK QUARTER 

Black Leg ; Steucing ; Black Spauld (Scotland) ; Murrain ; 

Quarter III 

Black Quarter is an inoculable disease due to the enti-ance 
into the tissues of the black quarter bacillus — Bacterium 
chawocei. 

The disease is characterised by intoxication and by the 
appearance of emphysematoas tumours in certain muscles and 
under the skin. 

Aniinals affected. — The disease is seen mostly in young 
oxen between the ages of five months and four yeai'S, but 
younger and older animals are not absolutely innnune. Sheei^ 
and goats also contract the disease readily enough. One or 
two cases liave been reported in the pig and horse. Man and 
the fowl are immune. 

The microbe.— The bacillus can only be demonstrated by 
the microscope in preparations made from tJie affected muscles 
and the oedematous fluids. In the freshest state it is in the 
form of rods measuring from 5 to 8 /*, rounded at the ends, and 
staining equally throughout. In unstained prepai'ations it is 
motile, if protected from the air. 

Some of the rods occur singly, others are joined end to end 
in twos and threes. This is the form usually found in the fi-esli 
fluid from cavities. In preparations made fi'om the muscles 
the form of the bacilli varies. Some of them are distended 
by a clear unstained spore in the centre or at the exti'emity ; 
others, without being swollen, stain unequally. In this wa}' 
the rod may become spindle or racquet-shaped. 

It stains by Kiihne's or Ii)ffler's method. It also stains 
by that of Gram. 

Lesions.— The principal lesions are local ones. They are 
found in the region of the fore and hind quarters. The bacilli 
come to rest in the intermuscular tissues, where they grow 
and set free gases which distend the skiji and dissect apart 



1 7 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

the muscle fibres. On cutting into the swelling, gas escapes. 
The subcutaneous and intermuscular tissues are infiltrated 
by a bloody serosity. The muscles of the part are dark red 
in colour, and their fibres look string3% They give off a rancid 
odour (butyric acid), which becomes vei'v marked when the 
tissue is heated. In the sheep the local tumour may be almost 
imperceptible. Histologically examined, many of the muscle 
fibres are hyaline and broken across. The glands of the 
part are often hsemorrhagic. The cavities sometimes contain 



Fig. 26. — Black-quarter bacillus from muscle of ox 
(Zeiss, oil immersion. xV)- — M'Fadyean. 

more fluid than in health. Some of the internal organs 
are congested, and the muscular ones may show the usual 
lesion. It may be found in the heart, for example. 

Jnspeciio/i. — The disease is not communicable to man, and 
the flesh has been often consumed by human beings without ill 
results. Nevertheless, total seizure in an abattoir is justifiable, 
because the flesh has often a rancid odour, and puti'ef action 
begins in a very short time. It is seldom, however, that one 
meets with cases of black quartei" in the abattoirs; but the 
carcase of an animal killed during an attack may be sent in 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 173 

dressed. It may then be necessai-y to decide whether the lesion 
is of traumatic origin, as may be stated by the proprietor. 

One will, of course, look for bacilli in the lesions. A piece 
of the suspected muscle should be heated gently, when a rancid 
odour will be given ofi' in the case of black quarter. Some of 
the putrefactive microbes are rather like the black quarter 
bacillus, and might at fii'st sight be mistaken for it. The former, 
however, are larger, and they are not so deeply situated in the 
muscles, unless putrefaction is Avell advanced. In the latter 
case, of course, the question is settled so far as meat inspection 
is concerned. The diseased muscle can be examined micro- 
scopically after teasing on a slide. 



RED BRAXY 

In Scotland this name is applied very loosely to more than 
one disease of the sheep. One speaks particularly of water braxy, 
and red or turnip braxy, but the term braxy mutton, as used 
by the peasants, generally means simply the flesh of sheep 
which have not died by the hand of man. Water braxy is 
simply an oedematous condition, which may have arisen from 
more than one cause, although it is generally considered to be 
a dietetic disease. Eed braxy is a specific disease, and seems 
to be identical with bradsot, or brasot, which is A^ery prevalent 
in Iceland and in some parts of Norway. In its character 
this disease very much resembles black quarter, and the two 
have often been confounded. It is advisable that veterinarians 
should reserve the term braxy for the specific disease. 

The disease is prevalent in the north of Scotland and in 
some parts of England — Cumberland. According to the 
writings of the early part of the 19th century, it had then a 
much wider distribution in Scotland than it has to-day. The 
deaths amounted to as many as 35 per cent, of the flock in some 
places. The disease was well known in various parts of the 
Lowlands ; but it has to a large extent disappeared as the 



1 74 ME A T INSPE CTION 

land became improved. Braxy is almost identical to black 
quarter in its clinical, bacteriological, and morbid anatomical 
characters. 

Animals affected.— The disease is met with most commonly 
in young sheep towards the back-end of the year. Animals 
above the age of three years are seldom attacked. The calf 
and pig are not refractory to experimental inoculation, but 
one does not hear of them being infected naturally. In the 
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture (No. 50, 1838), Mr. J. 
Carmichael, who had evidently great experience of braxy, 
describes a case in a mountain deer. The disease can be 
experimentally inoculated to fowls and pigeons, which are 
absolutely immune to black quarter. The effect of the virus 
on these birds constitutes one of the chief differences between 
the two diseases. 

The microbe.— Nielsen, and more recently Jensen, describe 
the microbe of bradsot as a sporulating bacillus, measuring 
2 to 6 yu. X 1, and resembling in appearance the bacillus of black 
quarter. In fact the only difference seems to be in its patho- 
genic effect on animals. It stains in the same way as the latter 
microbe. Preparations are best made from the fluid of the 
cavities and the oedema in the wall of the fourth stomach. 

Lesions.— Th&Y are very like those of black quarter. The 
subcutaneous and muscular tissues are infiltrated by a sanguin- 
eous oedema ; gas is also present. The serous cavities contain 
a reddish fluid. The walls of the stomachs, particularly the 
fourth, and the intestines are infiltrated by a sanguineous 
fluid. The flesh exhales a special odour. 

Inspection. — On account of the odour and discoloration of 
the tissues the flesh is unmarketable, but it is not harmful to 
human beings, unless putrefaction has set in. This occurs 
very rapidly. In infected districts large quantities of braxy 
mutton are consumed by the peasant population after salting 
or smoking ; but, inasmuch as the curer is unable to distinguish 
between anthrax and the former disease, this practice is not 
devoid of danger. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 175 

All interesting note in a paper by Mr. Cowan (^Highland 
and Agricultural Soc. Reports, 1861) is as follows:— "In 
some places of Argyllshire, large quantities of braxy mutton 
are salted, dried as hams, and sold into the towns, where by 
many it is considered a delicacy. From the quantities of it 
consumed in particular localities, there is no doubt that it is a 
cause of bowel disorders, impurity of the blood, and skin dis- 
eases." In a footnote the editor of the journal remarks that the 
price obtained for the flesh, which was in much request, made 
farmers less anxious to get rid of the disease from their farms. 

With regard to the flesh being a cause of skin disease, it 
is interesting to remember that " itch " (scabies), the classic 
reproach to the Highlands, was said to be of dietetic origin. 
A continued diet composed largely of salted meat is not con- 
ducive to health, especially if the flesh has begun to putrefy 
before being put into the pickle. 



TETANUS 
Lock- Jaw 

An inoculable disease, caused by the bacillus of tetanus, and 
characterised by tonic spasms of the muscles. 

Animals affected.— Oi the domesticated animals the horse 
is the most susceptible to tetanus. The disease is rare in 
the ox, but it may be met with in cows after parturition. 
Occasionally it is met with in calves (umbilical tetanus). 
Sheep and goats are more frequently attacked than oxen. A 
considerable number of cases appear in certain districts in 
newly born lambs and in those that have been castrated. The 
pig is susceptible, but does not often contract the disease. 
Fowls are refractory. Man is susceptible. 

The microhe.—Tlie bacillus of tetanus is found at the seat of 
inoculation, which is generally a suppurating wound. After 
death, a few bacilli invade the blood (Sanchez Toledo). The rod 
measures about 6 /a. It is rounded at the ends, and when the 



176 ME A T INSPE CTION 

microbe is siDorulating one extremity sliows a knob, or maybe 
a clear space (drumstick bacillus). The rods occur singly or 
in twos and threes joined end to end. In preparations made 
from the wound other microbes are present. 

Les-ions.— The bacillus acts solely by its toxins; the lesions 
found are not due dii'ectly to it. Thus there may be 
pneumonia when foreign bodies have passed down the trachea 
during a spasm of the glottis ; iii the muscles there may be 









•^ 


/~Vx 


\ 



Fig. 27. — Tetanus bacillus (sporulating) 
(Reichert, oil immersion. yV)- 

signs of small hsemorrhages having occurred. A histological 
examination of the latter organs often reveals hyaline 
degeneration of some of the fibres. 

/Tis/jeci'io?!.— Tetanus is not at all likely to be transmitted 
to man by ingestion. Animals do not develop tetanus even 
when virulent material is ingested ; indeed, the bacillus exists 
in the intestines of many healthy animals. The comparatively 
small chance of recovery may induce the owner of an animal 
to slaughter it at the outset of the attack. The flesh of such 
animals, if it set properl}^, may be passed as harmless and 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 177 

marketable when the wounded tissue has been removed. In 
the later stages, however, the flesh does not set, and the 
muscles are altered in the manner described above. Such 
carcases are not dangerous, but they are unmarketable. 

EABIES 

Sabies is a disease communicated to animals by the inocula- 
tion of an undetermined virus. The disease is characterised 
by maniacal symptoms, and in the later stages by paralysis. 

Animals affected.— The dog most frequently sufi'ers from 
rabies, but he may inoculate other animals by biting them. 
These in turn may inoculate each other, but it is mainly by the 
dog that the disease is spread. All animals are susceptible, 
but the fowl seldom becomes i-abid after being bitten. In man 
the disease is known as hydrophobia. 

Lesions.— There are no lesions that can be said to be 
pathognomonic of rabies. Indeed, the post-mortem appearances 
usually leave one in doubt, unless the history of the animal is 
known. The symptoms of rabies may develop in an animal 
during its sojourn in the pens of the abattoir ; but such cases 
will be comparatively easy to deal with if the inspector be a 
veterinary surgeon, as he should be. 

On the other hand, it may happen that the animals have 
been sent in for slaughter on account of having been bitten by 
a mad dog. The owner may have advised the authorities, or 
he may not ; but if a number of bitten animals come in for 
slaughter, it will be as well to get their history. The fact of 
the animals not being fat should arouse suspicion. 

If the animals have come in soon after the accident, the 
wounds will be apparent. If the symptoms have developed 
before death, there will often be self-inflicted wounds present. In 
sheep and cattle the latter are generally found about the head. 

In the carnivora the wounds are found on the tongue 
and in the mouth. The pharynx may be congested. A like 
condition is found in the salivary glands. The stomach mav 



1 7 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

contain foreign material of all descriptions, or only a quantity 
of brownish-coloured blood-tinged mucus. The alimentary 
mucous membrane is congested and eccliymosed at places. 
The serous membranes also show ecchymoses. The respiratory 
membrane may be similarly congested and ecchymosed. The 
nerve centres and the menmges are also congested. 

In ruminants the appearances are practically the same, 
except that the true stomach is usually empty, and wounds in 
the mouth are less frequent. According to Nocard and Eoux, 
the urine present in the bladders of animals dead of rabies con- 
tains in about 30 per cent, of cases a large amount of sugar. 
The histological lesions are as little conclusive as the macro- 
scopical ones. 

Jrispecfio?!.— Rabies is not a disease likely to be contracted 
by ingestion, even if the material swallowed be virulent ; still, a 
theoretical danger exists, despite the absence of confirmatory 
evidence. The greater danger, however, is to the man who 
manipulates the carcase ; and he should be warned against the 
chances of accidental inoculation if a post-mortem has to be made. 

The parts that have been found to contain the virus are 
the brain, the cord, the salivary and lachrymal glands. Less 
frequently the nerves are virulent ; they are most likely to be 
so towards the centres ; the virus seems to spread both to and 
from the centres along the nerves. More rarely the kidneys, 
the suprarenal, pancreatic, and mammary glands have been 
found vhulent. It is worthy of note that the nerve centres 
and the saliva have been found virulent two or three days 
before the appearance of any appreciable symptom (Nocard 
and Roux). The muscles are never virulent of themselves, 
but the nerve trunks of the part may be. 

It appears from the above considerations that total seizure 
will be necessary in all cases when the symptoms have developed. 

When dealing with the carcases of animals slaughtered on 
account of having been recently bitten by a mad dog, it will be 
sufficient to seize the head and the parts in the neighbourhood 
of the bites. 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 1^9 

FOWL CHOLERA 

This is a contagious disease of birds, usually of the septi- 
caemia type, and caused by the fowl cholera bacillus. 

Animals affected.— AW birds are susceptible, but barn-door 
fowls suffer most frequently. The rabbit is also very susceptible. 
Birds and rabbits are most often attacked by the disease in its 
acuie or septicaemic form. The less susceptible animals, such as 
horses and ruminants, are either not affected by experimental 
inoculation, or they show only a local abscess. They never 
contract the disease spontaneously. Human beings are 
refractory. 

So far as the Editor knows, fowl cholera has not been re- 
corded in British fowls.^ Klein, however, has described a some- 
what similar disease in fowls, due to the Bacillus gallinarum. 
This was met with in England and Ireland. The same authoi'- 
ity also investigated the well-known " grouse disease," and 
stated that it was due to a bacillus of the fowl cholera type. 
M'Fadyean has described an epizootic pneumo-pericarditis in 
turkeys, which was caused by a similar bacillus. The two 
latter, however, are not communicable to the fowl. The Editor 
has also described a form of septicaemia which carried off a 
large number of tuberculous fowls. The latter was also due 
to a bacillus of the fowl cholera type. 

The microbe. —The microbe of fowl cholera is a small, oval 
bacillus, measuring 1 //, x • 25. When coloured i^reparations of 
the Ijacilli are looked at longitudinally, the poles and margins 
appear deeply stained, and they enclose a clear, uncoloured 
space in the centre. This appearance, however, is not confined 
to the bacillus of fowl cholera ; it constitutes a morphological 
type to which several microbes belong. When the microbes 
are looked at perpendicularly they resemble cocci. The bacillus 
can be stained by Loffier's or Kiihne's blues. Prepai-ations can 
be obtained from the blood, the oedematous fluids, and all the 

^ Since writing this, Professor M'Fadyean has informed the Editor that he 
has frequently met with the disease. 



1 80 ME A T INSPE CTION 

organs. The microbes are also pi"esent in the discharges, 
though not in a state of purity. 

LesioTis. — In most cases death takes place in from twelve 
to forty-eight hours. A few, however, linger on for a week 
or two, then die emaciated. 

A yellowish foam is present about the beak, and signs of 
diarrhoea are seen around the anus. In the subcutaneous 
tissues one finds small hsemorrhages. The muscles are very 
pale in chronic cases. The internal vessels are all congested, 
and so are many of the organs. 

Blood.— The blood is very dark in colour. 

Lungs and pleurae. —The lungs ai'e congested ; the pleui-a 
is ecchymosed. 

Heart and pericardium. —The pericardium is ecchymosed, 
and the cavity contains a light straw-col oui'ed fluid, which 
soon coagulates when the sac is opened. The heai't muscle 
and endocardium show ecchymoses. 

Liver.— The liver is swollen, and in some cases it shows 
small necrotic areas of a yellowish colour. 

Spleen.— The spleen is usually much SM^ollen, but it may 
be normal. 

Intestines and peritoneum.— The j)eritoneal cavity contains 
a fibrinous fluid. 

The intestinal mucous membrane is congested and ecchy- 
mosed ; in some parts a greyish exudate is present. The tube 
contains a fluid which is grey and blood-streaked. 

I nsjJection.— It is unlikely that fowl cholei'a will be met 
with by the Meat InsiDectoi* ; neither is he likely to see the 
diseases described by Klein, nor that of turkeys investigated 
by MTadyean, except perhaps in the poultry markets. The 
flesh of birds dead from those affections is unmarketable, 
for it is often flaccid, and shows small haemorrhages. It may 
happen, however, that when a hen-run or cover gets infected, 
the proprietor may decide to kill oft' for sale as many birds as 
possible. A number of birds, then, that have been killed in 
the early stages may be sent into the market. If the birds 



BACTERIAL DISEASES i»i 

are not emaciated, and if the flesli is not disfigured by lisemor- 
rliages, there is no reason why it should be withdrawn from 
consumption, since none of the diseases here mentioned 
are communicable to human beings. Birds which have not 
been shot or had their necks drawn, should arouse sus- 
picion ; l3ut, of course, it is easy enough to draw the neck 
after death. 

A bacteriological examination of the heart blood might 
give the inspector a clue to the cause of the lesions. The Editor 
would point out, however, that in his experience bacilli of the 
fowl cholera type, which may in no way be connected with the 
animal's death, are not infi-equently present in the heart blood 
of fowls. They have jDrobably invaded the blood from the 
intestines after death, for, as every one knows, the entrails of 
the slaughtered fowls are not immediatelv removed. 



DIARRHCEA IN YOUNG ANIMALS 

White Scour 

Diari'hoea in young animals is brought about by the action 
of the several species of bacteria which cause lactic acid, acetic 
acid, and butyric acid fermentations. 

The pi'oducts of these bacteria irritate the gastro-intestinal 
mucous membrane, and a catarrhal condition is set up. 
According to Jensen, diarrhoea in young cah^es at the 
teat is due to a bacillus which resembles the bacillus coli 
(see Maligntant Cataerh). The latter form is sometimes 
complicated by septicaemia ; that is to say, the bacteria invade 
the blood stream. 

Animals affected.— T)ia,rrh.cea, of the above nature may be 
seen in. all young animals, but it is principally with calves and 
lambs that the Meat Inspector is concerned. 

Sometimes the calves' carcases are sent to the abattoir after 
having been bled ; it would hardly be worth while sending in 
a lamb's carcase. 



1 8 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

1/6810718.— The mucous membrane of the abomasum shows 
shght congestion. A similar condition is found on certain parts 
of the bowel. The posterior bowel contains a sticky white 
material, which has a sour smell. The flesh is paler even than 
normal ; it is flabby and usually oedematous. If the trouble 
has existed for a day or two the body is emaciated. 

/Tispeciio/i.— Flesh of the above description is considered 
unmarketable owing to its watery and emaciated condition. 
N'ocard states that numerous olDservations show that veal of 
this description may be the cause of serious gastro-intestinal 
disturbance in human beings. He explains that this is probably 
due to bacteria contained in the flesh. Evidently he refers to 
the form in very young calves, which may end in septicaemia. 
The flesh of animals so young as that, however, may cause 
intestinal disorder, even if the animal has not suffered from 
diarrhoea. 

DERMATOMYCOSIS. 

This term is applied to diseases of the skin caused by parasitic 
moulds. 

The principal forms are those popularly known as ringworm 
— Tinea tonsurans and Favus. 

» 
Tinea tonsueans 

This form of the disease is caused by the Trycojjhyton 
tonsurans (Malmsten). It is frequently seen in cattle, but 
rarely in sheep and pigs. Man may be infected from animals 
by contact. 

The pai'asite.— The parasite, when taken from the lesions, 
consists of filaments and spores. The former are partitioned, 
and show occasional branching (Fig. 28). They measure from 
4 to 6 /A in diameter, and some of them break up into chains 
of spores at one extremity. The spores are ovoid bodies 
measuring from 2 to 4 ^u. in length. They are arranged in 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 



183 



chains or masses, and are generally mucli more numerous 
than the filaments. 

Preparations are obtained 
from scrapings taken off the 
affected patches, and from the 
roots of diseased hairs. The 
material should be first cleared 
in ^ 40 per cent, solution of 
caustic potash, and then mounted 
in glycerine. No staining is 
necessary. 

It is by no means certain, 
that all cases of trycophyton 
ringworm are caused by the 
tonsurans, for some of the para- 
sites show distinct dift'erences on 
artificial culture media. This 
question, however, need not be 
discussed, as its bearing on meat 
inspection is insignificant. 

Lesions.— In cattle the lesions 
are most frequently found about 
the head and neck ; but they 
may appear on any part of the 
body. In the older animals, the 
upper eyelid, the base of the 
horns, and the neck are favourite 
seats. In calves the lesions are 
often found around the mouth. 
Dry crusts of a greyish colour 
appear on the skin. They may 
reach the thickness of half an 
inch, and the hairs are destroyed. 
If some of the remaining hairs 
be pulled out from the affected 
area, it will be seen that in some cases the roots are surrounded 




Fig. 28. — Hair of liorse, showing 
the trycophyton parasite. — 

Neumann. 



1 84 MEAT INSPECTION 

by a greyisli slieatli. The microscope shows the latter to be 
made up of spores. 

If the denser crusts be pulled off, the skm is found to be red 
and bleeding underneath. There may also be pus present. 
The skin in the neighbourhood of the crusts is wrinkled. 
In another form of the disease the lesions start about the 
flanks, croup, and sides of the chest. The hair is at first 
erect in small patches. Later, it falls off, leaving a bald 
patch which often reaches the size of a five-shilling piece, 
and is limited by a circular zone of congestion. 

In sheep the wool is matted in small patches on the 
neck, chest, shoulders, and back, and greyish crusts appear 
on the skin. 

Inspection.— See Favus. 

Favus 

The Meat Inspector is only likely to meet with this 
form of ringworm in fowls. It has several times been met 
with in caged rabbits ; but, so far as the Editor is aware, 
no outbreak has been reported in a warren. 

The paro,site. — Th.e parasite is a mould— the Achorion 
schonleinii. The elements of the fungus are very like those 
of trycophyton; so much so, that the differential diagnosis 
cannot be made by a microscopic examination alone. As a 
rule, however, the filaments are much more numerous than 
in trycophyton, and the breaking up of the threads into 
chains of spores is more frequently observed. Slight differ- 
ences of form and biological character observed in parasites 
from favus lesions render it probable that all are not due to 
the achorion. 

Lesions.— Ill the fowl the lesions are mostly found on the 
comb and wattles, but they may also appear on the body. 
Greyish circular crusts appear on the skin. They vary in 
size from a pin-head to a threepenny piece, and consist of 
felted masses of filaments (mycelia). At first they are cupped 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 1&5 

or depressed in the centre. As the patches become confluent, 
however, this appearance is lost, and the skin is covered by 
irregular crusts of a greyish colour. When the neck and body 
are invaded, the feathei's are powder}*, and many of them 
have fallen out. A mouldy, mouse-like odour is given off. 
The birds "are frequently emaciated. 

ln%'geot%on. — \\^ is by contact with the diseased surfaces 
andjiairs that human beings contract ringworm from animals. 
Many cases of transmission, both of trycophyton and favus, 
have been recorded. It is therefore necessary to warn those 
who have to handle the carcases of the danger of infection, 
and it is advisable that all affected fowls be kept out of the 
market. 

In the larger animals, however, the lesions will be removed 
with the skin, and it will not be necessary to seize any part of 
the carcase, unless the deeper structures have been injured 
by rubbing, or by the application of severe irritants. 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 

PEOTOZOA 

Several members of this group of animal parasites are found 
in the blood, muscles, and internal organs of animals used for 
food. With the exception of the coccidia, we cannot regard 
them as parasites transmissible from animals to human beings 
through the medium of animal flesh. The evidence in favour 
of even the coccidia being so transmitted is slight. 

Texas Fever 

This is a parasitic disease which is well known in the 
Southern States of North America, In Australia it is known 
as Tick Fever. It is also met with in Finland. 

Animals affected.— The disease is seen in cattle ; sheep are 
immune. This affection has not obtained a footing on cattle 
of this country, but it is sometimes met with in those imported 
for slaughter. 

The parasite.— The parasite, which has been classed with 
the Protozoa, has been named Pyrosoma higeminum. It is 
found free in the blood or contained in the red corpuscles. 

The parasites usually present themselves as clear bodies of a 
pear-shape. They measure from 2 to 4 /x in length, by 1-5 to 2 /* 
at their broadest part. Some of them show a small dark point 
like a nucleus in the swollen end. In fresh blood (uncoagulated) 
preparations the free parasites show amoeboid movements at 
the body temperature. The pear-shape is not the only form ; 
some are spherical. The latter are especially met with in 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 187 



aminals affected by tlie disease in its olironic form. The red 
cells contain one, two, or more parasites, and tliey are most 
abundantly present in blood from tlie kidne5^s, spleen, and 
liver. Cover-glass preparations made from the blood can be 
stained by eosin and methyl-blue, or by methyl-violet. 

LesioTis.— Ticks are often present on the affected animals ; 
it is through the agency of the former that the disease is believed 
to be spread. In the acute stages the animals are very anaemic. 
The red blood cells may have fallen greatly below the normal 
(normal in ox= 6,000,000 
per cubic mm.). Many of 
the corpuscles contain para- 
sites ; others are distorted 
(poikilocytosis). 

Small haemorrhages are 
found under the skin and 
in the internal organs. The 
latter are engorged with 
blood. The spleen is en- 
larged—maybe to twice its 
normal size. The kidneys 
are also congested, and their 
tubules are sometimes 
crammed with brownish 
granules of pigment derived 
from the blood (pigmentary 
infarction). The bladder may contain reddish-coloured urine. 
The flesh may be fevered. 

The post-mortem appearances in the acute form of the disease 
resemble those of anthrax, but the absence of the Bacillus 
anthracis from the blood and congested organs suffices to differ- 
entiate Texas fever from the former. 

In chronic cases the animals are much emaciated and very 
anaemic. The spleen is usually more or less enlarged, but 
congestion of the other organs is not usually present. The 
hsemoglobinuria symptoms are generally absent. 




Fig. 29. — Red cells of ox containing the 
parasites of Texas fever. — Smith. 



1 88 MEAT INSPECTION 

Tlie flesh is paler than normal, but it may show signs of 
small haemorrhages. 

/?is29eci'io7i.— Nothing is definitely known about the effect 
on human beings of the flesh of animals which have suffered 
from Texas fever. One may reasonabty argue, however, that 
any deleterious action would have been traced, did it exist ; for 
in some parts of the world the disease is very common, and 
the flesh of affected animals must frequently have been eaten 
by human beings. 

The carcases of the affected animals are often unmarketable 
on account of their poor condition and w^atery appearance, 
or the presence of hsemorrhagic discolorations and signs of 
fever. In 1894, Texas fever was discovered in cattle imported 
into Hamburg for slaughter. Since then, all European 
continental countries have forbidden the importation of 
American oxen, with the view of preventing the disease from 
gaining a footing amongst their herds. 

Several diseases which are analogous to, tliough not identical with, Texas 
fever, have been described in different parts of the world. 

In India we have Surra, wliich is caused by a blood parasite Trypanosoma 
evansi. This disease mostly attacks horses, but it is also met with in goats, 
and occasionally, in a milder form, it affects cattle. 

In Central Africa the imported horses and cattle are attacked by Nagana- 
Tse-tse Fly disease, which is due to a blood parasite very like that of Surra. 

Carceag is the name applied to a disease of sheep in certain parts of 
Roumania. According to Babes, the disease is caused by a micrococcus which 
invades the red blood cells, and it is the same disease as the bacterial hpemo- 
globinui'ia observed by him in Roumanian cattle. Mr. Macfarlane, M.R.C.V.S., 
Malta, consulted the Editor about a disease which attacks cattle imported into 
the island. In a week or a fortnight after landing they sicken, and the 
termination is almost always fatal. The post-mortem appearances are : great 
enlargement of the Ij'mph glands throughout the body, enlargement of the 
spleen and liver, and staining of the tissues with bile. A well-marked symptom 
during life is hsemoglobinuria. The Editor thinks that this must be the same 
disease as that described by Babes. 

Sarcospoeidi^. 

The parasites of this class are found embedded in the 
tissues. They are the Psorospermice utriculiformes. 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 189 

Animals a^ected. — Sarcosporidioe are frequently found in 
all the animals of the abattoir, but apparently they seldom 
cause much trouble to their hosts. 

They are more commonly met with in the flesh of animals 
in poor condition ; but fat animals are by no means exempt. 
Pigs are often the harbourers of these parasites, and in 
trichinosis countries muscular psorospermosis frequently co- 
exists with the former disease. Cobbold stated that it was 
the exception not to find them in the flesh of cattle which 
had died of cattle-plague. They are also frequently found in 




Fig. 30. — Extremity of one of 
Miesclier's tubes with its con- 
tents. At the side are the 
kidney-shajsed bodies, much 
enlarged. 




Fig. 31. —Falciform 
corpuscles from 
the Balhiania 
gig ant ea. x 
850. — Kailliet, 
Neumann. 



the muscles of healthy cattle. They have been found by 
Cobbold in sheep. Out of 900 sheep examined by Morot, over 
30 per cent, were found to harbour sarcosporidia^ These 
parasites have also been frequently found in the flesh of goats, 
deer, fowls, and rabbits. Lindemann has recorded a case of 
psorospermosis in the heart of a man ; but this is quite an 
exceptional observation. Leuckart states that they have 
never been found in the muscles of human beings. 

The parasites.— There are two principal varieties of the 
utriculiformes, viz. the Sarcocystis and the Balhiania. 

The sarcocysts are found in the muscle fibres. They vary 
greatly in size. The smaller form, which is known as the 



igo 



MEAT INSPECTION 



Sarcocystis meischeri—'Rahiej's corpuscles— measures from 
2 to 3 mm. X -08- -3 mm. Tliis is the form most frequently 
found in the pig, and it requires the microscope for its identi- 
fication. When a preparation of affected muscle is examined 
with the microscope, the sarcocysts, if viewed longitudinally, 
appear as cigar-shaped bodies, which are bounded by a mem- 
brane showing a fine cross striation. Pressure disintegrates 
the membrane, and in this case it may appear ciliated. The 
cyst contains a number of kidney-shaped bodies, which are 
looked upon as spores (Fig. 30). 




Fig. 32. — Rainey's tubes, enlarged about 
40 diameters. 



In sheep,large sarcocysts—^. tenella—iaesLSuring f in. x i in., 
are also met with. Bertram found 182 sheep affected out of 
185 (Ostertag). 

The Balhianice are larger as a rule than the sarcocysts. 
On account of its size this jDarasite has been called the B. gigantea . 
It varies in dimensions from a barley-grain to the kernel of 
a hazel-nut. It is surrounded by a membrane, and the internal 
cavity is partitioned into spaces, which contain a number of 
bodies of a crescent shape— falciform corpuscles (Fig. 31). If 
the cysts be ru^Dtured, a milky juice exudes, which on micro- 
scopical examination is found to contain the before-mentioned 
corpuscles. 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 191 



m 



^^ 



SH 



\\i 



%1 



Lesions.— The alterations seen in the flesli depend to 
large extent on the number of parasites 
present. When the muscles are infested 
in a moderate or medium degree by the 
small sarcocysts, no macroscopic changes 
are present. The flesh may ajDpear 
perfectly normal to the eye, but the 
microscope shows the psorosperms in the 
muscle fibres. The latter are dilated, 
and the parasites are surrounded by 
the sarcous substance, which they have 
pressed out under the sarcolemma 
(Fig. 32). 

Some of the invaded fibres have 
undergone hyaline degeneration. The 
cysts sometimes become calcified. They 
then appear to the eye as calcareous 
specks of a greyish colour. The number 
of parasites present varies greatly. 
In healthy-looking beef from different 
animals, Cobbold estimated them at from 
100 to 2000 in an ounce, and in the 
heart of a sheep, a portion of which he 
ate, there were about 1000 to the ounce. 

In cases of severe infestation, altera- 
tions of an inflammatory and oedematous 
character have been described in the 
muscles ; but it is not certain that these 
are due to the parasites, for other patho- 
logical conditions sufficient to account 
for the appearance of the flesh are 
often present. 

When the larger sarcocysts are pre- 
sent, as in the sheep, one sees greyish 
elongated cysts against the red colour 
of the muscles 



,^l 




^ 



9 



1 9 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

The Balbiania is found oftenest in sheep, but oxen, pigs, 
goats, and deer are also frequently infested by it. They 
are generally situated in the connective tissue structures. 
The oesophagus is the favourite habitat, but they are also 
found in the tongue, the muscles of the i^harynx, those of 
mastication, and those of the neck, trunk, and thighs. They 
are occasionally found under the serous membranes. Out 
of 900 sheep examined by Morot, 272 had cysts in the 
oesophagus (Fig. 33). Excepting the presence of the cysts, 
the tissues are little altered. 

Inspection. — M.&nj feeding experiments with infected flesh 
have been conducted on animals, the results of which have been 
negative. Leuckart, however, observed sarcocysts in a pig 
which he had fed on infected flesh ; but he could not assure 
himself that infection had not taken place in some other way. 
As already stated, Cobbold ate a portion of a badly infested 
sheep's heart, and he experienced no ill effects. 

If there be any chance of human beings contracting nuLSCular 
psorospermosis from eating aft'ected flesh, it must be a very 
small one, for, notwithstanding the frequency wath which these 
parasites exist in animals of the abattoir, the condition is 
practically never met with in human beings. 

Flesh containing microscopic sarcocysts, then, may be 
passed unless their presence be associated with alterations 
which render it unmarketable. In the case of carcases con- 
taining iDarasites of macroscopic size, the Balhianice for example, 
only the afTected parts need be seized, if the flesh be otlierwise 
normal. The same procedure may be adopted in dealing 
Avith cases in which a large number of calcified parasites are 
present. 

COCCIDIOSIS 

This term is applied to diseases caused by Psorosjiermicv 
oviformes. The disease is also referred to as psorospermosis. 

AniTnals affect eel. — The species which most frequently 
harbours coccidia is the rabbit, but these parasites are by no 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 193 

means rarely found in cattle* and sheep, Man also suffers 
from coccidiosis. 

The 'parasites.— T\iQ psorospermise are an order of the 
Sporozoa. There are several varieties described in man and 
animals. The best known are the Coccidium oviforme and the 
C. perforans. The former is found free in the bile ducts, or 
enclosed in their epithelial cells. It is met with in rabbits 
and-human beings. The latter is found in the intestinal glands 
and epithehum of rabbits, fowls, cattle, sheep, and human 
beings. These two varieties dift'er very little from each other 
in appearance. 




Fig. 34 — Adult Coceidia 
from the liver. 



Fig. 35. — Liver of rabbit with Coccidmm-iiodnles. 



The intestinal form is smaller than the hepatic ; but one 
cannot expect to determine the variety by a simple micro- 
scopic examination of parasites from the lesions. It is possible, 
then, that some of the intestinal cases are due to the oviforme. 
The adult C. oviforme from the bile ducts is ovoid, and 
measures from 30 to 40 /a x 14 to 20 ^. It is surrounded 
by a membrane with a double contour. 

In some the contents of the cell are separated from the 
wall, and appear as a round mass in the centre; in others 
the cell contents are granular (Fig. 34). 

In some of the epithelial cells the parasites are much 
smaller, 1-5 to 2 /*. 

13 



1 9 4 ME A T INSPE CTION 

Lesions. —Isi. the majority of cases the lesions are confined 
to the liver or bowel, but owing to intei'ference with absorp- 
tion and metabolism the body may be ver}^ emaciated. 

Liver.— It is chiefly in the rabbit that the liver is the seat 
of disease. The organ is enlarged. Greyish-white nodules are 
seen on its surface and in its substance, varying in size from 
a mallet-seed to a hazel-nut. These nodules are dilated and 
thickened bile ducts which contain coccidia. Some of the 
nodules are dense and cheese-like in apj^earance. These might 
be mistaken for tuberculous nodules, but their situation in 







■^^z 



Fig. 36. — Cross-section of a Coccic^iiim-nodnle, slightly enlarged. 
The contents have been for the most part washed out. 

the bile ducts and the presence of coccidia will dispel all doubt 
as to the true nature of the lesion (Fig. 35). 

If a section of the liver be examined microscopically, one 
finds that the walls of the dilated bile ducts are thickened by 
fibrous tissue. Many of the lining cells are invaded by para- 
sites, and some of them are shed. At certain pai'ts of the 
duct nodules having a papillomatous structure project into 
the lumen (Fig. 36). 

In the liver of a sheep the Editor has met with lesions which 
he considered due to psorosperms. Many of the bile ducts 
were dilated and almost destitute of epithelium. Their walls 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 195 

were thickened and showed many diverticula, which on 
cross-section presented an adenomatous appearance. In the 
lumen of the ducts were many ovoid bodies suiTounded by a 
capsule. The contents in some cases were granular ; in others 
the appearance was that of an egg undergoing segmentation. 
These bodies measured 100 yu, x 20. Certain areas of the liver 
were obliterated bv dense collections of fibroblasts. 




Fig. 37. — Microscopical section of lamb's intestine 
affected with psorospermosis. The psorospernis 
are seen at a. — M 'Fadyean. 



Intestines.— The intestinal lesions depend on the extent of 
infestation and the duration of the disease. 

In the early stages, nothing would be noticed unless a micro- 
scopic examination were made. The epithelial cells would then 
be found to contain refractile bodies which often displace the 
nucleus. 

In more advanced cases areas of congestion are visible to 
the naked eye, and reddish nodules about the size of a small pea 



ig6 MEAT INSPECTION 

are found on tlie mucous membrane at various parts of the 
bowel. These nodules contain coccidia, and they are some- 
times ulcerated. On examining microscopic sections of the 
bowel, the nodules are found to consist mainly of distended 
Lieberkiihnian glands and adenoid tissue. The glandular 
epithelium is in a state of active proliferation, and many 
of the cells contain the parasites. The villi included in the 
tumours, and those of the congested areas, are enlarged. Their 
epithelial covering is thickened at some parts; at others it 
is in a state of catarrh (Fig. 37). 

In fowls, coccidia— psorosperms— have been found inside the 
cells of epitheliomatous growths on the skin ; and in the so-called 
" brand cancer " seen in Australian cattle, similar bodies have 
been found. It is by no means certain, however, that the 
parasites are the cause of the growths. 

/■jispeci-ion. — Cases of hepatic and intestinal coccidiosis, 
although rare, are not unknown in human beings ; but it is 
likely that infection takes place through the medium of 
vegetable food or water, rather than by ingestion of affected 
organ. 

The organs most frequently affected, viz. the liver of the 
rabbit and the intestines of other animals, are not likely to be 
eaten by human beings. To avoid all risk, however, they 
should be seized and destroyed. The intestines of affected 
sheep should not be used for the manufacture of sausages, 
unless they have been previously submitted to some sterilising 
process. 

The carcases may be passed, if they are not emaciated, and 
the flesh is not flabby and cedematous, as sometimes happens 
when diarrhoea has existed. 

CESTODES 

The cestodes are flat worms. In the adult state they are 
found in the intestines of animals, but they pass an intermediate 
stage of encystment in the tissues of different species of hosts. 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 197 

Tlie adults are the taeniae, and tlie intermediate forms 
which concern the Meat Inspector are the cysticerci, echinococci, 
and coenuri. Several are found in the tissues and organs of 
animals used for butcher meat. A general idea of the method 
of infection will be obtained by consulting the section on 
Measles. The cystic forms must be dealt with in particular. 
The taeniae may be discussed en bloc, as they all frequent the 
intestines. 

Measles 

This- is a condition caused by the presence of certain bladder- 
worms— cysticerci— in the organs and flesh of animals. 

Animals affected.— The ox and the pig are the animals 
whose flesh most frequently contains cysticerci. It is by eating 
diseased beef and pork that human beings become harbourers 
of tape- worms in the majority of cases. Cysticerci have occa- 
sionally been found in the tissues of sheep. 

There seems to be little doubt that some of these were 
Gysticercus cellulosce. Olt and Bougert found the latter in the 
muscles of one animal of this species, and Ostertag gave it as his 
opinion that certain calcareous nodules found in the hearts of 
three sheep were degenerated G. cellulosce. These observations, 
however, are exceptional. 

The goat has on one occasion been infected experimentally 
with the measles of the ox by Zenker, but this animal hardly 
requires mention in a section on measles, unless it be to say 
that it does not suft'er naturally. The cysticercus of the pig 
has been found a few times in deer and monkeys. 

Man and the dog sometimes harbour the C. cellulosce in 
their flesh and organs. The latter observation, of course, has 
more bearing on the objects of food supervision, than on the 
actual inspection of meat. 

The Parasites. —Measles arises from dift'erent forms of para- 
sites, although they all belong to the common class of cestodes. 
From the researches of Von Siebold, Ivlichenmeister, Leuckart, 
Cobbold, and others, we know that the bladder-worms, be they 



198 MEAT INSPECTION 

cysticerci, coenuii, or ecliinococci, are all immature or inter- 
mediate forms of different tsenise or tape-worms. As a general 
rule the bladder or cystic forms do not oocm- in the same host 
as the adult tsenise, but an exception to this rule is sometimes 
found in the case of the C. cellulosce, which is occasionally met 
with in the muscles and organs of human beings, the hosts of 
the mature tape-worm or strobila. It is with the measles-pro- 
ducing cestodes, however, that we are concerned at present; 
the others will be dealt with elsewhere. As already mentioned, 
the animals chiefly affected with measles are the ox and the 
pig, two of the most important victims of our carnivorous 
habits. The parasite of the ox is known as the G. bovis ; that 
of the pig as the C. cellulosce-. Measles of the sheep is usually 
due to the G. tenuicollis, but inasmuch as its strobila, the Toenia 
marginata of the dog, never inhabits the intestines of man, 
the Editor thinks it better to preserve the symmetry of arrange- 
ment by leaving its description to the next section of this volume. 

CYSTICEECUS BOVIS (Cobbold). 

This is the cystic form of the T. sagiimta (Goeze) or T. 
mediocanellata (Kiichenmeister), which inhabits exclusively the 
intestines of man. The size of the true cysts varies from a 
hemp-seed upwards, according to the stage of their development ; 
but they are seldom larger than a pea. They have occasionally, 
however, been found to measure as much as f of an inch in 
length. 

The cyst (Fig. 41) is a delicate membranous sac, spherical or 
elliptical in shaiDC, and of a greyish colour. It contains fluid. 
At one point on its wall a small nodule about the size of a 
hemp-seed is seen. This contains the head or scolex of the 
tape-worm. It is enclosed in a chamber of the caudal vesicle, 
which seems to be formed by an involution of the membrane. 

The cysticerci as a class are monosomatic and monocephaHc ; 
that is to say, only one chamber is formed, which contains a 
single scolex. In some cysts the development is arrested, and 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PAEASITES 199 

no head is formed (aceplialoc3'-st). If a fresh cyst be gently 
pressed on each side of the nodule, the scolex can be evaginated 
and examined under the microscoj^e (Fig. 38). The size of the 
scolex is shghtly under 1 mm. (^V i^-)- Under a low-power 
lens it is seen to l^e tetragonal in shape. As is common in 
tape-worm heads, four suckers are seen around the head, if it be 
looked at from above ; if "^dewed laterally, only two can be seen. 




'S5-::^<^ 



Fig. 38. — Evaginated head of Cysticercus 
Teenise, saginatee. x 30. 



It differs from most of the other tape-worm heads in being 
devoid of booklets, hence it is sometimes called the unarmed 
taenia (T. inermis). The rostellum, too, is quite rudimentary; 
it is represented by what looks like a frontal sucker. These 
characteristics are of great im23ortance in distinguishing this 
parasite from the T. solium and others which are of less 
consequence to the Meat Inspector, l3ut may nevertheless be 



200 ME A T INSPE CTION 

found occasionally in muscle —Cysticerus tenuicollis and Echino- 
coccus veterinorum, for example. About the head and the con- 
stricted part termed the neck, a large number of small calcareous 
particles are found, but this also applies to many other scolices. 

CYSTICEECUS CELLULOSE 

This is the cystic form of the T. solium (Eudolphi), which 
has its habitat in the intestines of man only. 

The cysts are elliptical, and very like those of the C. hovis. 
When the contained head is evaginated, however, and examined 





Fig. 39. — Bladder-worm form Fig. 40. — Larger (anterior) and smaller 

the pig, after the digestion (posterior) hooks of Tmnia solium. 

of the bladder, x 20. x 280. 

under the microscope, it shows many jDoints of difference (Fig. 39). 
The head is more spherical in shape, and slightly smaller ( • 6 to -8 
mm.) than that of the ox parasite. In front there is a well- 
developed rostellum, which cai'ries a double circlet of from twenty- 
four to thirty-two hooklets. The rostellum, however, if retracted, 
may not appear prominent. The hooks are composed largely 
of inorganic material (silica). On this account they resist 
degenerative processes for a longer time than the organic parts, 
and may be found long after the latter have disappeared ; but 
the inorganic structures may themselves be removed before 
the cyst has undergone complete degeneration. The hooks 
measure from 110 to 180 fi. Confusion might occasionally arise 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 201 

between tliis parasite and the Echinococcus veterinorum, but 
a microscopic examination of the cyst and its contents will at 
once dispel all doubts. 

The characteristics of the parasites which may be mistaken 
for those of measles will be described in the next section. 

Infection of human beings and animals.— When human 
beings ingest the flesh of animals containing living cysticerci 
of *he species under consideration, the scolices are freed from 
their envelopes by the gastric juice, and the corresponding tape- 
worms develop in the intestines. Similarly, when animals 
swallow food which has been soiled Ijy human fipces containing 
the eggs or ripe proglottides of the tape-worm, they become 
infected with measles. The eggs of the T. saginata give rise 
to the C. bovis, and vice versa. Those of the T. solium give rise 
to the G. cellulosce. 

The above facts have been proved by abundance of observa- 
tion and expei'iment on men and animals. Von Beneden first 
ex]3erimentally infected pigs mth the ova of T. solium; 
Kiichenmeister experimented successfully on criminals with 
the C. cellulosce ; and many others have since recorded similar ex- 
periments. The evidence regarding the C. bovis and T. saginata 
is equally conclusive. 

In Southern and Eastern countries, where sanitation, as 
applied to men and animals, is in a backward state, tape-worms 
are commonly found in men. Owing to the uncivilised habits 
of the latter, the eggs are forced, as it were, on the unthinking 
beast, and they are returned to the human host in a more 
mature form. 

In India the habits of the lower castes have resulted in the 
"widespread distribution of C. bovis in the ox and T. saginata 
in man. The same is true of many other primitive countries, 
in which the history of tape-worms is lost in antiquity. Mr. 
Macfarlane, M.E.C.V.S., Government Veterinary Inspector in 
Malta, has recently informed the Editor that measles is very 
common in the cattle impoi'ted into Valetta from Tunis and 
Bar bary— especially from the latter country. 



2 o 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

Measles of tlie pig is also very commonly met with in Malta. 
The recent discussions raised in the ^oc. Gent, de Med. Yet. by 
M. Morot of Troyes, show that measles of the pig is well known 
in Southern France. Morot also points out the necessity of 
carefully inspecting the cattle imported into France fi'om 
Algeria, as Mr. Macfarlane does for those coming into Malta 
from the same quarter of the world. 

The recent returns of the Board of Agriculture show that in 
1 897 we imported from foreign countries and British possessions 
3,010,387 cwts. of fresh beef, and 347,617 cwts. of fresh pork. 
It is only just to the consumer and to the British butcher 
that this flesh should be subjected to a more adequate inspec- 
tion than at present. The farther animals are removed from 
human beings, actually and metaphorically, the less frequently 
will tseniasis and measles occui*. In the more enlightened 
countries, however, they are still too common. In native French 
cattle and swine measles is often seen. In Germany measles 
is by no means rare. In some parts the proportion of affected 
animals is very high. Eeissmann, quoted by Ostertag, states 
that in Berlin, from 1892 to 1897, the percentage of beef measles 
increased steadily from • 188 per cent, to • 396 per cent, in bulls, 
from • 147 j^er cent, to • 401 per cent, in oxen, and from • 124 
per cent, to • 322 per cent, in cows : possibly the examination 
became more searching. The records of measly beef from the 
Prussian abattoirs show a large increase of cases during the 
last six years : 567 in 1892 ; 2629 in 1897 (Ostertag). In Saxony 
47 cases were recorded in 1893 and 299 in 1897. These numbers 
do not represent a large percentage when one takes into account 
the number of animals slaughtered, but they show wdiat careful 
inspection has brought to light, and the necessity for super- 
vision by competent officers. Some of the German abattoir 
returns show considerably over 1 per cent, of cases. In America 
we have no reason to believe that the G. hovis is rare ; Stiles 
examined 297 tape-worms, all of which turned out to be T. 
saginata. Ward, on the other hand, states that the T. solium 
is verv uncommon in America ; but that has little bearing on 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 203 

the frequency of measles in a country where meat is eaten 
well cooked. In Prussia the percentage of measly swine 
slaughtered was • 067 in 1896 ; in Saxony, ■ 017 ; and at the 
Berlin abattoir, • 074. It is worth noting, however, that the 
distribution is very unequal; the percentages are very much 
higher in some abattoirs than in others. 

In Britain no statistics on the frequency of measles are avail- 
able. There is no doubt, however, that it exists in British 
swine. In the past few years the Editor has met with several 
cases, and others have been reported by practitioners. Our 
sanitary arrangements, and the conditions under which our 
animals live in most parts of the countr}^, at least, are calculated 
to render small the chances of infection by human faeces. We 
know, however, that sewage grass is freely used for cows in 
some towns, and that in many rural districts swine have 
plenty of opportunity to indulge a coprophagous inclination. 
In countries like our own, where some control is exercised 
over the hygienic surroundings of animals, they seldom have 
the opportunity of swallowing an enormous number of tape- 
worm eggs. Possibly that ex23lains why we hear so little about 
measles from our abattoirs. It is not customary to look specially 
for the disease, consequently the presence of a few cysticerci in 
certain muscles may easily escape ol^servation. 

There is no reason why certain human taeniae should not 
in a short time be stamped out of existence in civilised lands. 
It is related of the Abyssinian that he regards his tape-worm 
as one of his most cherished possessions ; but fortunately no 
such obstacle to stamping out these parasites can exist here, 
even in the mind of the man who refused to forbid his pig the 
house on the ground that it paid the rent. 

The fact that human beings are sometimes infected with 
the cystic form of the T . solium only concerns the Meat Inspector 
in that it makes this form of taeniasis the more to be feared. 
It is believed that a man harbouring the T. solium in his in- 
testines may become infected with the G. cellulosce, if the worm 
be displaced in such a way that it deposits its eggs in the stomach. 



204 



MEAT INSPECTION 



This, however, is not the only method of human infection by 
the cysticercus, but the reader may be sjDared an indehcate 
explanation, since this joart of the subject belongs to the province 
of the physician. 

Lesions of ox measles.— In the tissues the cysticerci excite a 
proliferation and become suri'ounded by a delicate adventitious 
cyst of fibrous tissue.' The latter is practically of the same size 
as the parasitic cyst, on the outer surface of which it is moulded. 
The cysts vary in size from that of a dried pea to that of a small 
bean, and their appearance is that already described. The 
bladders which have been ruptured are, of course, smaller. If 
the cyst be enucleated from the tissues a cavity is left. The 




Fig 41. — Cysticercus Teenies saginafse, 
embedded in the muscle. Nat. size. 



duration of life of the parasite in its intermediate host is limited. 
According to Cobbold, degenerated cysts only are found about 
six months after infestation ; but of course the latter may have 
occiuTcd at different times, so that living and dead C3'sticerci 
may be found in the same beast. The necrosed cysts are usually 
shrivelled up. They are about the size of a hem]3-seed, of a 
yellowish or greenish yellow colour, and are frequentl}" calcified. 
Cobbold and Morot have both pointed out that in some of them 
a purulent-looking material of a greenish or yellow colour may 
be found between the true cyst and its capsule, which is 
evidence that the degenerative process is invading the cyst from 
without inwards. This is important to know, because the 
inspector by using the microscope may hope still to find some 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 205 

trace of the scolex inside the cyst, although degeneration may 
have commenced. Where it is advanced, Ostertag states that 
the calcareous corpuscles of the parasite can still be found. 
The favourite seats of the bladder-worms are the root and 




Fig. 42. — Measles in lieart of ox. 
(From a photograph iy Mr. Macfarlane, M.R.C.V.S., Malta.) 

frsenum of the tongue, the muscles of mastication— pterygoids 
and masseter muscles— and the heart. They are often enough, 
however, prese^it in the muscles of the shoulder, haunch, and 
other regions. 

With the exception of the lieart, the cysts are seldom found 
in internal organs. Adipose tissue is almost always free from 



2o6 



MEAT INSPECTION 



them. Morot, liowever, lately recorded a case of piilmonar}^ 
cysticercosis in the ox, and I'eferi'ed to anothei' case reported 
by Mejer. 

The number of C3'sts is very variable. It depends on the 
quantity of eggs swallowed. Dr. Joseph Flemming counted 
as many as 300 in a piece of the psoas muscle weighing one 




Fig. 43. — Measles in the liind quarter of an ox. 
(Jrom, a pliotograph ly Mr. Macfarlane, M.R.C.V.S., Malta.) 

pound. This, however, was in India, where the conditions are 
such that an animal may swallow thousands of eggs. In cases 
of experimental infection, foi' which enormous numbers of eggs 
were used, the flesh and organs were simply infested with 
bladders. Leuckart found them in man}' of the lymph glands 
in one of his experimentally infected calves. In civilised 
countries, however, the numl)er of cysts is usually small, and 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 207 

they ai'e often confined to the seats of election. To discover 
them one must make a careful examination of the muscles by 
a series of longitudinal incisions. In the muscles they are seated 
between the fasciculi and in the intermuscular connective tissue. 
When only a few cysts are present, the muscle is not much altered 
to the eye. When they are numerous the tissue is paler than 
normal, flabby and oedematous. If the muscle be examined 
undCr the microscojDe, the fibres in the neighbourhood of the 
cysts present a hyaline appearance. 

Lesions of pig measles.— Th.^ commonest seats of the C. 
cellulosce are the tongue, the heart, the muscles of mastication, 
those of the neck, the chest, and the muscular j)ortion of the 
diaphragm. They ai'e also found pretty often in the liver and 
nerve centres. The Editor has seen the liver of an Irish pig 
simply crammed with them. Morot has lately recorded a case of 
splenic cj'sticercosis of the pig. As in the ox, a generalised 
distribution seems to de^Dend on infection by a lai-ge number of 
eggs. The subcutaneous fat is usually free from cysts, but this is 
by no means an absolute rule. The lymph glands may be invaded 
in l3ad cases. The appearances of the flesh and the changes 
undergone by the parasites are practically the same as in beef 
measles, but, of course, the contents of the cysts difYer from 
those of the latter. There may only be one or two bladders 
present in an animal, but they are usually much more numerous 
in the pig than in the ox, because of the many opportunities 
given the former to indulge the coprophagous appetite. It is 
said that the bladdei'-worms live for a longer time in the pig 
than in the ox. 

Inspection.— li will be seen from the above description of 
the lesions that the number of cysticerci found in animals varies 
within wide limits. The cases may be divided for the purpose 
of consideration into three categories. First, there may be 
a large number present throughout the body ; secondly, there 
may be a dozen or so ; thirdly, it may happen that only one 
or two apparently isolated parasites are found in the most 
favoured resorts. In the last two cases the inspector must 



2 o8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

make several longitudinal incisions into the fiesli at the 
commoner seats of tlie parasite in order to detect it. In the 
first class of cases there is no question about the duty of the 
inspector. He should seize and destroy the whole carcase, for 
in addition to its infecting power, the flesh is pale, flabby, 
watery, and consequently unmarketal^le. In the second and 
third classes the question is rather more complex, for the 
carcase may be of good appearance. It does not follow that 
parasites will be present in the hind quarters, even when several 
have been found in the anterior muscles ; but one must always 
suspect it. To cut the carcase into pieces small enough to enable 
one to say that the wdiole has been examined and the affected 
parts removed, would be tantamount to total seizure, for its 
sale, in this country at least, would be spoiled. Its mutilated 
condition, however, would not prevent it being employed for 
the manufacture of sausages, and for this purpose it might be 
used if the examination proved satisfactory. 

Thoi'ough cooking kills the parasites. Perroncito has shown 
that they are destroyed by a few minutes' exposure to a 
temperature of 50° C. (122° F.). In some of the German 
abattoirs the carcases of measly animals considered fit for 
food are cut into suitable pieces and thoroughly cooked or steril- 
ised liefore sale. No arrangements, however, are available for 
supervised cooking in our abattoirs, nor is it at all certain that 
an extensive market would be found for the mateiial, however 
excellent it might be. Moreover, it has yet to be shown that 
measles exists in our animals to such an extent that the utilisa- 
tion of suspicious carcases is a serious consideration. At the same 
time one must admit that no methodical system of examination 
for cysticerci is practised in our abattoii's, and any one acquainted 
with the method, or rather want of method, in vogue even in 
the best of them, will understand how easily the presence of a 
few parasites may be overlooked. Pickling renders the flesh 
harmless in about three weeks, but even a shorter time would 
suffice, since thorough cooking is necessary in order to extract 
the bi'ine from meat of this kind. The o^vner of a carcase. 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 209 

moderately measled but otherwise of good quality, might be 
allowed to jDickle the apparently healthy parts under the super- 
vision of the authorities. He might also be allowed to make 
use of the fat or lard after it had been melted and strained 
through a fine sieve. In the absence of arrangements for 
carrying out the above ijrophylactic manipulations, or failing 
the assent of the proprietor to conform to them, the duty 
of litie inspector should be to seize the whole carcase. The 
suggestions with regard to the destruction of cysticerci in 
flesh by prolonged cold storage appear to the Editor to be 
impracticable. 

Those pigs which come in the third category, where only 
one or two cysticerci have been found by the ordinary method 
of examination, should, in the opinion of the Editor, be treated 
like those in the second. It is difficult to believe that an animal 
could have swallowed only a single egg. Indeed, it is much more 
likely that a proglottis containing many has been swallowed. The 
discovery of one cysticercus, then, ai'gues the presence of others, 
although the method of examination may have failed to reveal 
them. In man the T. soliwm may give lise to such serious 
consequences that one cannot afford to be lenient. In dealing 
with cattle there is not the same call for severe measures. The 
T. saginata is certainly an inconvenience to its human host, 
but its cystic forms do not invade his muscles and oi'gans. 
Accordingly, when a few cysticerci have been found at the seats 
of election in an ox, and exploratory incisions into the othei' parts 
have failed to disclose more, the apparently healthy portions 
might be put on the market in the fresh state. To destroy 
them altogether because tliei'e is a slight chance of an odd 
individual getting a T. saginata from eating the flesh, seems 
to the Editor to be an exaggerated form of meat inspection. 
Moreover, the very fastidious can destroy the last element of 
I'isk by refusing to eat a joint that has not been cooked right 
into the centre. Were it customary in this country to sell 
meat with instructions that it must be well cooked before being 
eaten, one might apj)ty the same rules to poi'k as to beef. To 
14 



2 1 o ME A T INSPE CTION 

label a joint, however, would be at present to prevent its sale ; 
and for reasons already exj)lained, tlie consequences of putting 
measled pork on the market without warning might be 
irremediable. The same cannot be said of measled beef, 
although it is advisable that ordinary care be exerc'.sed to 
keep it out of consumption. When degenerated cysts are 
numerously present in ox flesh, be they calcified or not, the 
parts containing them should be considered unmarketable. 
If the degenerated cysts be not very numerous, the flesh 
might be passed after removal of the lesions ; but one should 
always look for living parasites as well, since all of them may 
not have undergone degeneration. 

In dealing with pork sausages, Schmidt-Mulheim recom- 
mends that they be digested in ai'tificially prepared gastric juice, 
since it acts more slowly on the scolices and their booklets than 
on the flesh particles. This, however, would be a laborious 
undertaking. It would be much better to take care that no 
flesh deserving to be condemned gets into the hands of sausage- 
makers. Lastly, it should be remembered that those who are 
working with measly flesh may by their fingers carry the 
scolices to their food. 

CYSTICEECUS TENUICOLLIS 

This is the cj'^stic form of the Tcenia marginata which 
inhabits the intestines of the dog. 

Animals affected.— The parasite may be found in all wild 
and domesticated ruminants, but it is most commonly met 
with in sheep. The reason for this is the important part that 
the dog plays in the herding of these animals. Young sheep 
are apparently much more easily infected than older animals. 
At the Edinburgh abattoir this parasite is only second in 
point of frequency to the *S^. rufesceris of the sheep. The 
Editor has only on one occasion met with it in the pig. 

The iMrasite.— The size of the bladder- worm depends on 
its age and situation. In the serous cavities it may reach 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 211 



tlie size of a hen's egg, or even larger. In this situation 
the parasites are contained in adventitious sacs formed 
from the peritoneal tissue. They look like small water- 
bladders, and in some cases the serous covering is pulled down 
by the weight of the cyst, so that a constricted part is 
formed at the point of attachment. The true cyst (Fig. 
44) shows an attenuated portion or neck, hence the 
name "slender-necked hydatid." The scolex is contained 
inside the neck, and can be evaginated by pressure. 

As in the case of other cysticerci, 
only one head is present in each cyst. 
It may, however, be acephalous. 
In cases of exjDerimental infection, 
the bladders have been found 
to have attained the length of 
from -6 to 3-5 mm. in ten da3's. 
Leuckart states that seven weeks 
after infection, they measured 15 
mm. Their size, then, varies 
greatly. The heads are well de- 
veloped ill cysts of forty days' 
standing (Baillet), and in the fully 
developed cysts they possess a 
double row of booklets. These 
are about the same length as, but 
more slender than, those of G. 

cellulosm, a parasite for which this one might be mistaken. 
The roots of the booklets of G. tenuicollis (Fig. 45) are also 
longer than those of the former, and the blades are less 
curved. The usually large size, the difference of habitat, 
and the long neck of G. tenuicollis, however, are in the 
vast majority of cases the best guides for distinguishing 
the one cysticercus from the other. It is not difficult to 
distinguish the parasite under consideration from the G. hovis, 
for the latter is unarmed. 

Lesions. — The embryos when freed from the egg enter 




Fig. 44. — Cysticcrcits tenuicollis. 

— Neumann. 



2 1 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

the blood vessels. In this way they may get to various parts 
of the body. They have been found in the liver, lungs, pleura, 
heart, pericardium, and muscles, but the peritoneum is by far 
the most frequent habitat. In this situation the}'' may be 
found attached to the surface of the liver, or to the adipose 
tissue of the mesentery and omentum. The number found 
in one animal varies from one to a dozen or more. Sometimes 
they are shrivelled up and calcified. According to Leuckart 
and Baillet, most of the embryos gain the peritoneum by 
boring their way through the substance of the liver, which 
they reach by way of the portal vessels. Traces of their 
wanderings can be found in the form of greyish or blood- 




FiG. 45. — Hooklets of Tienia inanjinata. x 280. 



stained streaks; but they seldom develop in the organ. 
In passing through the serous covering they may give rise 
to severe peritonitis ; but lesions of the latter description 
are seldom seen, except in experimental cases of infection, 
in which large numbers of eggs have been used. Still, 
Averadere has reported an enzootic of cysticercosis which 
carried off fifteen out of thirty lambs aged three months. 
The lesions were those of acute peritonitis and pleurisy. The 
liver and lungs were crammed with young cysticerci, and 
some measuring f of an inch were found in the peritoneal 
cavity. 

In the lungs, only the early forms have been met 
with. 

In the muscles and subcutaneous tissues of sheep, young 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 213 

forms have been observed— measles of the sheep (C. ovii)— 
and isolated adult cysts have been met with in a few cases. 
It is possible, then, that these cysts might also be found in 
the muscles of the pig, and be mistaken for C. cellulosce. The 
latter parasite is also exceptionally met with in sheep. The 
differences already referred to between the cysts and scolices 
of the two parasites, added to those of situation in other 
organs, should prevent any mistake being made in the diagnosis 
of the muscle lesion. Degenerated cysts of Coenurus cerehralis 
are sometimes present in the muscles and organs of young 
sheep (see Ccenueus). 

Inspection. — It is mainly with sheep that the inspector 
has to deal in this case. The affected animals are often in very 
good condition. In such cases the carcases should be passed 
after the affected organs have been removed. The latter 
should be destroyed, so that dogs may not eat thereof and 
become infected with T. marginata. When the carcases 
are emaciated, as occasionally happens, they should be dealt 
with according to the degree. 

CYSTICERCUS PisiFORMis (Zeder) 

This is the cystic form of the T. serrata, which inhabits 
the intestines of the dog. The cysticercus is found chiefly in 
the peritoneal cavities of hares and rabbits. It reaches its 
habitat in a way which is similar to that taken by the 
C. tenuicollis. In Scotland, rabbits are frequent harbourei's 
of this parasite.' The adult cysts vary in size from a pea to 
a nut, but most of them are of the former size. At one end 
the cyst shows a small hard nodule. This is the chamber 
containing the head. It may be retracted inside the chamber, 
or it may be evaginated (Figs. 46 and 47). 

The head has a double row of booklets, which are relatively 
much longer than those of other scolices. 

Inspection.— In the interests of the dog, the aft^ected organs 
should be destroyed. Affected rabbits are often very much 



214 



ME A T INSPE CTION 



emaciated, and quite unfit for the market ; but, owing to the 
custom of selHng them in the disembowelled condition, the 
cause can often only be surmised. 




Fig. 46. — Head of CysUcercus jiisi- 
forviis jiist mature, x 40. 




Fig. 47. — Head and body of Cysti- 
cercus pisiformis in completely 
evasinated state, x 19. 



ECHINOCOCCUS VETERINOEUM 

This is the cystic form of the T . echinococcus of the dog. 

Animals affected. — All the domesticated herbivora and 
omnivora may be infected by the hydatids of the T. echino- 
coccus. 

The parasite is also found in the organs of wild animals. 
It is by no means rare in human beings. Cattle and sheep are 
its most frequent hosts in this country ; but, strange as it may 
appear, when one remembers the relations of the sheep and 
the dog, cattle are the more often affected of the two, in the 
neighbourhood of Edinburgh at least. 

The pig is only occasionally invaded by the hydatids. Their 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 215 

frequency, however, depends on that of T . echinococcus in the 
dog, so that the number of cases in this or that district will 
vary from time to time. 

The parasite.— The E. veterinorum is poly somatic and 
polycephalic ; several chambers are formed, inside of which 
five, ten, or even more scolices are developed. 

According to Leuckart, the echinococci are visible to the 
naked eye two months after reaching the tissues. They then 
measure about 1 • 5 mm. in diameter. The heads appear in 

vt 




-vpE* 



Fig. 48. — Diagram showing the development of daughter and 
granddaughter echinococcus cysts. — Neumank, 

about five months, when the bladders have a diameter of 
about f of an inch. The size of the fully-formed hydatid, 
however, varies according to the density of the tissues which 
enclose it, and is roughly from that of a walnut to that of a 
bantam's egg. The hydatid lies inside an adventitious cyst of 
fibrous tissue. The true cyst is made up of two layers. The 
outer is dense and laminated ; the inner, which is the germinal 
layer, is membranous. From the inner surface of the internal 
membrane several proligerous vesicles are developed. The 
scolices develop inside the latter. In some cases daughter 



2l6 



MEAT INSPECTION 



cysts arise from the mother vesicle, either exogenously or 
eiidogenously (Fig. 48). These have the same structure as 
the mother cyst ; and even a third generation may form from 
them (granddaughter cysts). This is probably the explanation 
of the racemose forms of echinococci which are frequently 
present in the livers of cattle (Fig. 49). 

There is still another form of echinococcus cyst, which is 
exceedingly rare in animals in this country. This is the E. 
multil ocularis. On section it consists of manv small cavities 




Fig. 49. — Echinococcus raccmosus. 
Nat. size. 




Fig. 50. — Section tliroiigli 
an Echinococcus multi- 
locularis. Nat. size. 



about the size of a pea, and bound together by fibrous tissue. 
(Fig. 50). 

The Editor has only met with one case of the latter class. It 
was present on the surface of an ox's liver, and was about the 
size of a hen's egg. Whether these are related to the racemose 
forms, which are fairly common, it is difficult to say. Both are 
acephalous, but the cavities of the racemose variety are often 
about the size of a hazel-nut, and the}'' are separated only by 
a thick membrane. Degenerated cysts are commonly found, 
but these will be described with the lesions. According to the 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 217 

experience of the Editor, the aj)pareiitly normal cysts met 
with in the hvers of cattle often contain no heads. If a normally 
developed cyst be ruptured, and the fluid examined with a 
power of eighty, the heads will be distinctly seen (Fig. 51). 
Many calcareous particles are also present. The heads measure 
about 300 //, when fully extended, but the anterior end is often 



•<^ 





ii* 





Fig. 51. — Seolices of the Echinococcus veterinorum. The 
head is evaginated in two of the seolices ( Reich ert, 
obj. 7). 

invaginated into the posterior part. Many bright calcareous 
particles are present in the seolices. When the anterior part 
is visible it shows a rostellum surrounded by a double row of 
booklets. A high-power lens shows that the hooks are remark- 
able for their shortness. 

Lesions.— 'S>j far the most common seats of the E. veterin- 
orum are the lungs and liver. The hydatids have also been 
found in the spleen, kidney, pancreas, heart, aorta, serous 



2l8 



MEAT INSPECTION 



membranes, brain, and in the medullary cavities of long 
bones. They liave in a few instances been found in the 
muscles of the pig and the horse. 

Their presence in organs other than the liver and lungs, 
however, is exceptional. Presumably the embryos travel by 
the blood vessels, but, as they are most likely to enter the portal 
branches from the intestines, the majority will be arrested in 
the capillaries of the liver. 




NiccZ&c ad 'z^^ 



Fig. 52, — Liver of pig affected with Echinococcus vcterinorum. 
PtAiLLiET, Neumann. 



Liver.— The number of parasites present varies from a 
single one to several hundreds. In the graver cases of infection 
the organ is enormously enlarged. Frequently it weighs over 
100 lb. in the ox (normal, about 11 lb.) The bladders are 
seen on the surface and in the substance of the organ (Fig. 52). 

The capsule over the vesicles which project from the sur- 
face is atrophied and opaque. In most of the cases examined 
by the Editor, a very large number of the vesicles were degener- 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 219 

ated. These are always more or less shrunken. They may 
contain fluid, or they may be dry. The true cyst is shrivelled 
up into a yellowish-coloured cheese-like material, which floats 
in the fluid, or adheres to the collapsed wall, when the fluid is 
gone. As many of these contain neither heads nor hooklets, 
it is probable that they were acephalous cysts ; but of course 
the hooks do not persist indefinitely. The dry cysts look 
rather like encapsuled tubercles in which the centre has become 
caseous. One can always in the case of the hydatid, however, 
pull the yellow part out with a pair of forceps. It comes away 
en masse, and one sees that it is really a folded membrane. 
Sometimes these degenerated forms are calcareous. 

If undegenerated forms are also present, there is little 
difficulty in making the diagnosis ; but the Editor has several 
times met with cases in which one or two caseous cjst&, devoid 
of hooklets, were present along with true tuberculous lesions. 

The microscope shows that the liver tissue is atrophied 
around the cyst, and it is invaded by cells of the epithelioid 
type. Giant cells may also be present. The presence of hooklets 
in the parasitic lesions, and of tubercle bacilli in the case of 
tuberculosis, will establish the diagnosis. Where both are 
absent, some difficulty may be experienced in determining the 
nature of the lesion, in the liver at least. This organ, however, 
is never the seat of primary tubercles, except occasionally in 
very young animals. Moreover, the centre of the parasitic lesion 
can be completely enucleated from the adventitious mem- 
brane, the inner surface of which is smoother, more regular, 
and usually thinner than the capsule of an old tubercle. 

Lungs. — In the experience of the Editor, one almost never 
finds the lungs so seriously invaded as the liver. The number 
of hydatids present varies usually from one to six. When 
located at the surface they bulge out the pleura, which is 
usually opaque over the vesicle. Those in the substance of the 
organ can be felt to fluctuate and roll under the fingers. Occa- 
sionally a cyst in the neighbourhood of a bronchus will cause 
atrophy of the wall, and evacuate its contents into the tube. 



2 2 o ME A T INSPE CTION 

Muscles. — The muscles are seldom invaded by tlie hydatids. 
One or two cases have been described in the pig. Lemke 
counted eighteen in a pound of pork. Megnin has reported 
a case of a Eussian pig, in which the ilio-spinal muscle was 
crowded with cysts of the echinococcus. He did not see 
the other muscles, but they were said to contain many 
hydatids. 

JfispeciioTi.— The T. echinococcus does not develop in the 
intestines of human beings, so that the presence of hydatids 
in animals does not constitute a direct source of danger to man. 
It is by the fseces of infected dogs contaminating water, vege- 
tables, and possibly plates, that man is infected with this parasite. 
The afTected organs of animals, however, should be seized and 
immediately destroyed. This is all the more necessary, since 
infection of dogs with the tape-worms constitutes a direct 
menace to the health of the human community. When the 
liver is badly infected the carcase is often emaciated, and the 
flesh is flabby and watery. Such carcases must be dealt with 
according to their appearance ; but in the absence of serious 
alterations in the flesh there is no need to interfere. The 
possibility of the muscles containing cysts is very shght, and 
their presence w^ould not injure any one who ingested them. 

CCENURUS CEREBRALIS 

This is the hydatid form of the T. coenurus of the 
dog. It is the cause of the disease known as "sturdy," 
or " gid." 

Animals affected. — AW ruminants may be invaded by this 
parasite. It is much more commonly seen in the sheep, how- 
ever, than in any of the others. Young sheep up to the age 
of two 5^eai'S are apparently more liable to contract sturdy 
than older animals, but the latter are not exempt. We have 
no recent statistics concerning the frequency of this parasite. 
The affected animals are sent into our city abattoirs to be 
slaughtered in the spring of the year. As it is not customary 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 221 

for the inspectors to examine tlie brains of animals, it is 
likely that a good many cases pass unnoticed. The Editor 
has on two occasions obtained sheep's brains containing this 
parasite from a butcher's shop. 

The 'parasite. — The G. cerehralis is jDolysomatic, but it 
is monocephalic. Two or three hundred chambers may be 
formed, but each contains only one scolex (Fig. 53). 

In the brain, the cysts are as large as a pea about three 
weeks after infection (Baillet). The heads appear about the 
fortieth day, but the cyst is not mature until about the second 
month ; even then some of the scolices are incompletely 
developed. The mature bladders are usually about the size of 
a small walnut, but they may be much larger. When ex- 




FiG. 53. — Heads of Ccemorus. x 25. 

tr acted, one sees numerous grey specks, which are arranged 
in patches on the wall. These contain the heads. 

Lesions.— It is quite exceptional to find the cysts in an 
advanced state of development, except in the brain and the 
spinal cord. The former organ is the more common seat 
Usually only one or two cysts are present, but as many 
as thirty in one brain have been recorded. The tissue around 
the cyst is destroyed. 

When the bladders are large and superficially situated, 
even the bones of the skull may be. thinned and softened. The 
carcases are often ver}^ much emaciated. The emaciation 
may be particularly evident in certain regions which have 
undergone atrophy in consequence of a spinal lesion. The 
embryos reach their habitat by way of the blood vessels, and 



2 2 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

during tlie first three weeks of their invasion traces of their 
wanderings in the brain can be seen in the form of red or grey 
streaks (Fig. 54). 

The embryos certainly enter the other organs, but they 
have only in one or two isolated cases been known to develop 
in the subcutaneous tissue. In the otlier organs their develop- 
ment is checked at a very early stage, and the' parasites de- 
generate. These degenerated forms are frequently met with 
in the tissues of lambs. The lesions jDroduced by them are in 
the form of nodules, varying in size from a hemp-seed to a nut. 
The external part, which is fibrous, encloses a caseous material 
of a greenish-yellow colour. The nodules are sometimes 
calcified. Morot, who has repeatedly called attention to these 




Fig. 54. — Brain of a lamb with passages of Canxwiis. Nat. size. 

nodules, has lately described a marked case of general infection. 
In a young sheep he found 68 nodules in the muscles of the 
abdomen and hind-quarters, 87 in the muscular tissue of the 
fore-quarters, 41 in the masseters, 2 in the muscles of the eye, 
and 2 in the tongue. Similar nodules were present in the 
heart, the diaphragm, the kidneys, the pleura, and the peri- 
toneum. In the brain there were several degenerated nodules, 
but also five small bladders containing a clear fluid. Kailliet, 
to whom the tissues were sent, regarded the cysts as those of 
ccBuuri. 

Some difficulty might arise in distinguishing between 
young coenuri in the brain and the measles parasites. Scolices 
would be present in the latter, however, when the bladders 
had reached the size of a hemp-seed, whereas they only begin to 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 223 

appear in the cysts of the former when they are about the 
size of a hazel-nut. 

The degenerated cysts in muscle might easily be mistaken 
for those of measles in the same condition. The fact of all the 
nodules being caseous, however, would point strongly to the 
parasites being coenuri ; but a mistake regarding the identity 
of degenerated parasites would be of no consequence. 

Insyectioii.—TlxQ parts showing lesions and the emaciated 
carcases are the only ones which require to be dealt with. 

The heads should, of course, be destroyed if coenuri be 
found in the l^rain. The presence of degenerated cysts in the 
tissues should make one suspect sturdy. 

When the caseous nodules are numerously present in any 
part, it must be looked upon as unmarketable. 

CCENURUS SERIALIS 

This is the cystic form of the T . serialis of the dog, but it 
is not a common parasite. The cysts are found in the sub- 
cutaneous tissues of wild rabbits and hares. They vary in size 
from a pin-head to a hen's egg, and have all the structural 
characters of the coenuri. 

0. B. Eose, who described these parasites in 1833, said 
that they were found usualty between the muscles of the loins, 
back, and neck. He also said that warreners pmicture the 
vesicles and squeeze out the fluid before sending the affected 
animals to market. 

T^NIJD 

The taeniae most commonly found in the intestines of cattle 
and sheep in this country are the T. expansa and T. denti- 
culata. The former worm is best known. The}^ are both 
unarmed. The T. expansa may attain a great length, in some 
cases 20 ft. or more. The posterior segments are nearly an 
inch in breadth. The head, which shows four oval suckers, 
is continued by a narrow twine-like portion. The T. denti- 



2 2 4 ME A T INSPE CTION 

culata is sliorter than tlie preceding. It is usually about 1 ft. 
in length-, but it may be much longer. The head is made up 
of four globular suckers. The anterior part is thicker than 
that of the expansa, and the body has a denticulated appearance. 
Tape- worms have been credited with giving rise to 
diarrhoea and anaemia in young oxen and sheep. It seems 
more likely, however, that the serious and sometimes fatal 
effects attributed to the tsenise are really caused by small 
nematodes, such as the Strongylus cervicornis described by 
M'Fadyean in this country, and also found in calves by 
Gilruth in New Zealand. The intestinal parasites may give 
rise to severe gastro-enteritis, and be the cause of such marked 
emaciation and cachexia, that the carcases of the animals are 
rendered unfit for the market. 



TREMATODES 

The only trematodes which are of much importance to the 
inspector in this country, are those known pojDularly as flukes. 



DiSTOMATOSis (Eot; Fluke Disease) 

These terms are applied to the diseased condition caused by 
distomata or flukes. 

Animals affected. — All the domesticated animals may be 
invaded by flukes. Fluke disease, however, is only seen to 
any extent in sheep and cattle. The other animals are much 
less exposed to infection. A considerable number of cases 
have been recorded in human beings. In Scotland the disease 
is widely prevalent both in sheep and cattle. A large number 
of sheep carcases have to be condemned annually at the 
Edinburgh abattoir on account of this disease. It is most 
prevalent from December to March. The affection is rarely 
met with in pigs. 

The pa7'asites.—Tl\e two best-known flukes are the Distomum 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 225 

hepaticum and D. lanceolatum. The former is by far the most 
frequent in Scotland ; one hardly ever meets with the lanceo- 
latum. 

The D. hepaticum is like a miniature flat-fish (Fig. 55). It 
measures from 1 -8 to 3 cm. in length, and from 6 to 10 mm. 
in breadth. Its cuticle is of a brownish colour, being much 
lighter towards the centre than at the margins. It is studded 
witli^ dehcate bristles. An oral sucker, which communicates 
with a double alimentary canal, is situated at the anterior part 
of the head. The alimentary tubes show many lateral branches. 
A short distance behind the mouth on the ventral surface 




Fio. 55. — Distomum hejjcitieum. Nat. size. — Leuckart. 

there is another pore. The parasite is hermaphrodite, and the 
male and female genital organs are placed just in front of the 
ventral opening. The eggs are of a brownish colour, and 
measure about 130 fx x 70 /x. 

In most cases the parasites are found only in the bile ducts, 
where many of them lay their eggs, or they may have passed 
to the intestines by way of the bile duct. They are occasionally 
met with, however, in other organs. 

The laTweolatum is longer and narrower than the hepaticum. 
It measures from 4 to 9 cm. x 2 • 5 mm. It is lance-shaped, 
and the body is devoid of bristles. The ahmentary tubes are 
unbranched. 

Lesions.— Hho. bile ducts are the natural habitat of the 
15 



2 2 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

flukes, and the chief anatomical changes are found in the hver. 
Isolated parasites, however, have been found in other organs, 
which they probably reach by way of the blood stream. They 
enter the vessels at a less mature and smaller stage of their 
parasitism. The Editor has many times observed them in the 
lungs of oxen. 

Morot found 101 cases of pulmonary distomatosis in 
2458 oxen (4 per cent.). Lung lesions have also been met 
with in sheep by Burke and Littlewood, and in the pig by 
Euser. 

Morot has recorded one observation of D. hepaticum in the 
intercostal muscles of an ox. He has also found the parasites 
encysted under the serous membranes of the same species. 

Friedberger and Frohner say that flukes are sometimes 
found free in the serous cavities. 

Cocu has found a flidce in the right ventricle of a cow. 
Morot, Blanchard, and others have seen them located in the 
parenchyma of the liver. Lucet has seen the hepatic distoma 
in the spleen. They have also been met with in the portal 
vein and other vessels. The lanceolatum does not give rise to 
such marked lesions as the hepaticum. In China and Japan 
flukes are often found in the ducts of the jDancreas in the ox and 
buffalo (Gomy). The |Dancreatic fluke, however, is a dift'erent 
species— Dicrocolliwm pancreaticum. 

Liver.— The D. hepaticum gives rise to cirrhosis of the liver. 
It is no exaggeration to say that, in this country at least, the 
vast majority of cases of hepatic cirrhosis in animals is due to 
this parasite. 

In the ox the organ is much enlarged. Its borders are 
rounded, and its surface is usually regular. Its consistence 
is much firmer than normal, and its colour is often yellowish 
from infiltration by fat. If the organ be cut, a jerky sensation 
is conveyed to the hand through the knife. Frequent!}'' a grating 
noise is produced as the knife passes through the calcified 
ducts. 

Small areas, usually linear, of white fibi"ous tissue are seen 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 227 

on the surface of section. Tlie walls of tlie bile ducts are much 
thickened ; sometimes they are calcified. The ducts contain 
inspissated bile and mucus, which varies in colour from reddish 
yellow to very dark brown. Parasites are generally found in 
the ducts along with calcareous scales, but it is sometimes diffi- 
cult to find a single fluke. In the ox lesion the formation of 
cavernous blood spaces is almost invariably observed. These 




Fig. 56. — Cirrhosis of liver, showing new tissue and bile capillaries. 

appear as dark purple areas under the capsule and in the 
substance of the liver. They are never found in the cirrhotic 
livers of sheep. 

In the early stages the microscope reveals the presence of 
many fibroblastic cells in the neighbourhood of the ducts. 
Later, these cells are transformed into fibrous tissue which 
extends into the lobules and destroys the liver cells. In the 
fibrous tissue many new bile capillaries are seen (Fig. 56). In 



2 2 8 ME A T INSPE CTION 

some cases the remaining liver cells are infiltrated by fat 
globules. 

The cavernous spaces look like distended vessels filled with 
blood. They consist of areas of dilated capillaries which are 
separated from each other by rows of liver cells (Fig. 57). 

In sheep the enlargement of the organ is generally in the 
antero-posterior direction. On the posterior surface the large 




Fig. 57. — Microscopical section of the liver of an ox, showing 
cavernous spaces. 

ducts stand out prominently as white tubes, and usually con- 
tain large numbers of parasites. 

Cirrhosis of the liver not traceable to the fluke is some- 
times seen. These cases are sujDposed to be due to some 
error in diet. In Prussia, for example, a cirrhosis accompanied 
by fatty degeneration is often met with in sheep and cattle 
fed on yellow lupins. The disease has been called Lupinosis. 
It has already been mentioned that cirrhosis of the liver may 
occur in animals suffering from cei-tain chronic bacterial 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 229 



diseases. In this country a form of fine cirrhosis is sometimes 
seen in the Kvers of oxen. The organ is enlarged and of a 
dark chocolate colour. On section the graining is fine, and 
it is difficult to make out the new tissue with the naked eye. 

The interlobular form of cirrhosis, in which the new tissue 
is formed regulai'ly between the lobules, is seldom seen in sheep 
and cattle. It is, hoAvever, sometimes met with in the pig. 
It is almost needless to warn the 
inspector against mistaking the 
naturally well - marked lobulation 
of the pig's liver for cirrhosis. 

As a general rule the carcases 
of young oxen which have suffered 
from cirrhosis of the liver are not 
emaciated. Sheej:), however, are 
often reduced to skin and bone, 
as the saying is. The flesh of 
these emaciated animals is anaemic- 
looking, flabby, and Avatery. Fre- 
quently other parasites are dis- 
covered in their intestines. 

Lung. — In the lung the para- 
site becomes encysted. A hollow 
tumour with fibrous walls is 
formed. The tumour can be seen 
on the surface of the lung, or felt 
in its substance. It is exceptional 
to find more than two present in 
the one animal. The tumour is 
about the size of a small walnut, greyish in colour, and. the 
Avail is often calcified. The cavity contains a dark-broAvnish 
fluid of syrupy consistence. It probably consists largely of 
material excreted by the parasite. There is seldom more 
than one fluke in each cyst, but cA^en that may have under- 
gone degeneration, and disappeared. 

Serous membranes and muscle.— The parasites may give 




Fig. 58. — Lai val distoma in 
muscle of pig. — Leuckaet, 

Neumann. 



230 MEAT INSPECTION 

rise to small nodules immediately beneath the pleura and 
peritoneum, or in the deeper lying muscular tissue. , The 
nodules are about the. size of a haricot-bean. In the case 
of a' cow observed by Morot, seventy -five nodules were 
present. 

Dunker and Leuckart have described immature tre- 
matodes in the muscular tissue of the diaphragm and 
pharynx of the pig. They were contained in fibrous 
tissue capsules of an oval shape, and almost the size of a 
trichinous cyst (Fig. 58). The parasites were about half a 
milliinetre in length, and they were motile when heated to 
the body temperature. 

Ins-pection. — ki\j%v the eggs of the fluke have been excreted 
from the bodies of animals, the embryos are hatched. The 
latter, however, must pass through several intermediary stages 
of existence in other hosts before they can infect animals or 
human beings with flukes. The disease, then, is not directly 
transmissible, but the aft'ected organs, especially the liver, 
should be seized. Cirrhotic or fibrous livers are in all cases 
unfit for human food. Nevertheless, fluke livers can some- 
times be found in butchers' shops. The carcase can be passed, 
unless the flesh be oedematous or too emaciated for the market. 

BiLHAEZIA BOVIS 

The Bilharzia is the name given to a species of trematode 
which was first found in the portal vein of a man in Egypt 
by Bilharz. The B. hovis, a similar parasite, was first dis- 
covered in the portal vein of a bull in Eg3qDt by Sonsino. 
It has since been frequently observed in oxen and sheep in 
Eastern countries. It has been met with in Egypt, South 
Africa, and in India. 

The sexes are distinct. The male Bilharzia of man 
measures from 11 to 14 mm. x 1 mm. The body is flat, of a 
grey colour, and dotted with papillae. Like other trematodes, 
it possesses an oral and a ventral pore. The male carries 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 231 

tlie female in an elongated pouch (canalis gyncecophoi-us). 
The female is thread like, and measm-es from 15 to 20 mm. in 
length (Fig. 59). 

The Bilharzia of animals does not differ materially in 
appearance from that of man, except that it is slightly larger. 

The eggs of the B. hovis are spindle-shaped, and much drawn 
out at the extremities, one of which carries a pear-shaped body. 
They measure about IGO /jbx4:0 fj,. 




Fig. 59. — Distomuvi lixvialohiiim, male and female, the latter 
in the canalis gynsecophorus of the former. — Neumann. 

The parasites are found in the veins, especially in those of 
the portal system. The eggs of the female are carried by the 
blood stream into the dift'erent organs, particularly the bladder 
and intestines. 

Lesions.— Th& eggs are arrested in the capillaries. They 
may cause rupture with haemorrhage, or they may give rise 
to the formation of small pin-head nodules. The latter are 
found chiefly in the large intestines and in the bladder. They 
contain eggs. 

00 



2 3 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

Inspection.— The researches of Harley and Sonsino show, 
at least, that animals cannot be infected directly by means of 
the eggs. Human beings, accordingly, incur no danger from 
the flesh of animals harbouring these parasites. 

Amphistoma conicum (Zeder) 

More than one Amphistoma has been found as a parasite in 
domesticated and wild animals. 

The A. conicum is a jDarasite of the rumen and reticulum 




Fig. 60. — ^Portion of rumen of ox containing 
the Amphistoma conicum. — Neumann. 

of oxen and sheep. It is met with in Egypt, Australia, and 
India. Cobbold has given the name A. tuberculatum to a 
parasite found in the intestines of the ox in India. 

The A. conicum is yellowish in colour, with a rosy tint in 
certain parts. It is ovoid, the narrow end being in front. It 
possesses a frontal pore, and it measures from 10 to 13 mm. x 
from 2 to 3 mm. at the broadest joart. 

These parasites are of little interest to the Meat Inspector. 



NEMATODES 

The Nematodes are round worms. Many members of the 
order live as parasites in the bodies of animals. It is not 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 233 

necessary, however, in a book on " Meat Inspection," to 
enter into a description of every individual species. Only 
those which are of interest to the Meat Inspector need be dealt 
with here. 

Gastro-intestinal nematodes, such as the Strongylus con- 
tortus, S. cervicornis (M'Fadyean), and several others, may 
be the cause of diarrhoea, anaemia, and emaciation in cattle 
and sheep. The lesions in the stomach and intestines, how- 
ever, are of small importance. They seldom consist of more 
than local congestion, and would in the majority of cases be 
passed over were it not for an emaciated and watery condition 
of the flesh, which may render it unmarketable. A few cases 
of perforation or rupture of the bowel caused by ascarides 
have been recorded. Accidents of this kind will, of course, be 
followed by peritonitis. 

Tkichinosis 

Trichinosis is a parasitic disease of man and animals caused 
by the Trichina sinralis. One speaks of a muscular and an 
intestinal form, but it is usually the former that is understood 
by the term trichinosis, or trichiniasis as it is sometimes written. 

Animals affected. — Althongh the degree of susceptibihty 
varies widely, almost all animals, with the excejDtion of the 
cold-blooded species and birds, can be experimentally infected 
with muscular trichinosis. Positive results, however, have 
been obtained in cold-blooded animals by keeping them at a 
temperature of 30° C. (Goujon). In birds the intestinal form 
only can be produced. Eats are easily infected experimentally, 
and in tiichinosis districts they are often trichinous. Only the 
carnivorous animals contract the disease naturally, as one 
might expect, from the fact that infection takes place in the 
vast majority of cases by ingestion of diseased flesh. It is with 
the pig only that the Meat Inspector need concern himself. 

The pigs of this country are wonderfully free from the dis- 
ease, if we are to judge from the rarity of cases in the large 



234 • MEAT INSPECTION 

number of human beings who make pork a part of their diet. 
It is possible, however, that their immunity depends to some 
extent on the prejudice in favour of eating j)ig flesh after it has 
been well cooked. So far as the Editor is aware, the only parts 
likely to be eaten half-cooked are the pork fillets, and those 
portions which are made into sausages. 

A large amount of fresh and cured foreign pork is, howevei", 
imported into this country from places wdiere the disease is 
known to exist. The Board of Agriculture returns show that 
in 1897 we received from abroad 347,617 cwts. of fresh pork, 
and 0,967,996 cwts. that had been salted or cured. 

The fresh pork certainly calls for a more satisfactory method 
of inspection than that at present in vogue, for by no stretch of 
the imagination could the examination be called adequate. 

In some parts of America trichinosis seems to be ]3retty 
common in the pig, if we judge from the results obtained in 
France and Germany by examining imported hams and other 
forms of cured pork. This statement, however, is not intended 
to convey the idea that these cured products are likely to cause 
trichinosis in human beings. The facts brought to light by 
investigation are against such a conclusion ; but this will be 
discussed more fully in the paragraph devoted to Iiisjyedion. 

The examinations made in France and Germany showed 
that from 2 to 3 per cent, of the pork imported from America 
was trichinous. Chatin (p. 216, "Prophylaxis") states that 
out of 3444 cases of American pig products— hams, sausages, 
etc., examined at Havre in 1881, the number of cases 
containing trichinous flesh amounted to 14 • 66 per cent. ; the 
proportion of pieces affected was to 2-3 per cent. Later 
statistics from Germany by Zurn (quoted by Ostertag) show 
that in 1891 the proportion of trichinous pork imported from 
America into certain towms, varied from 1 to 8 per cent. 
Official reports from America stated that 2-7 per cent, of the 
pigs examined were found trichinous in 1884. 

The Annual Eeport of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 
1898 states that out of 1,892,131 hog carcases, of which parts 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 235 

were submitted to niicrosco]3ical examination, -816 per cent, 
showed degenerated tricliinous cysts, but no recognisable 
trichince. The number which showed recognisable trichince 
amounted to 1-036 jDer cent. Thus it would appear that the 
percentage of American pigs which at some time of their lives 
hai'bour living trichince is 1 • 852.^ 

In French pigs it is said that the disease has never been 
observed, although in some parts a large propoi'tion of the rats 
are trtchinous. 

In German pigs the disease is not unknown, but, according 
to Ostertag, it is becoming less frequent. In Prussia, in 1896, the 
proportion of trichinosis found in slaughtered swine was -021 
per cent., against -043 per cent, in 1892. In Saxony it was 
•102 in 1896. In BerHn, from 1893-97, the proportion was 
from -022 per cent, to -028 per cent. 

Small as these proportions may appear at first sight, the 
actual number of animals found diseased is by no means neglig- 
ible ; for it must be rememl3ered that many thousands of pigs' 
carcases were submitted to examination, and that one diseased 
animal may be the cause of trichinosis in a large number of 
human beings. The existence of trichinosis in German pigs, and 
the national partiality for raw or half -cooked swine flesh, cost 
Germany a large sum of money annually for meat inspection. 

The disease has been met with in Sweden, Denmark, 
Holland, Belgium, and Eussia. There is hardly a country in the 
w^orld in which it has not at least been seen, although records 
of its frequency are in most cases wanting. In Great Biitain 
we know nothing about its occurrence in home pigs ; the disease 
has only been looked for on the few occasions when human 
beings have been so severely infested that marked clinical 
symptoms followed. It is worthy of note, however, that the 

^ Section 20 of the Regulations, dated 14th June 1895, orders all carcases 
showing recognisable tricJiinse to be destroyed. The report further states that 
in 1897 the amount of examined pork exported to countries not requiring 
a certificate of microscopic examination was 161,303 lbs. 

As Great Britain alone imported 6,855,856 lbs. of fresh pork from America, 
a great deal of it can never have been examined. 



236 . MEAT INSPECTION 

Cumberland outbreak of 1871 in human beings was caused 
by the flesh of a pig which had been bred and fed at home. 
Moreover, trichinae have frequently been found in the muscles 
of human corpses in our medical dissecting - rooms. It was 
owing to observations made in the dissecting - room of St. 
Bartholomew's Hospital in 1834, that Paget discovered the 
woi'm which was afterwards described and named by Owen. 

The jjarasite. —The parasite belongs to the family of Tricho- 
trachelidse. It occurs in the same forms in men and in animals. 
The adult worms are found in the intestines only (intestinal 
trichinosis), but they give birth to embryos which penetrate to 
the muscles and organs. The females are more numerously 
present than the males. The latter measure from 1 • 4 to 1 • 6 mm . 
X 40 fjb. The worm is attenuated towards the cephalic extremity. 
It possesses an intestinal tube which ends at the posterior ex- 
tremity in a cloaca. In the male the testicular tube opens into 
the cloaca, which is bounded by two small prolongations (digiti- 
form appendages). The females measure 3 to 4 mm. x 60 /i, 
and the appendages are absent. The female genital organs 
consist of an alternately dilated and constricted tube, which 
ends in a vulva towards the anterior extremity. The eggs are 
hatched inside the female, whose posterior portion is simply 
crammed with them. The part anterior to the uterus con- 
tains embryos. It has been reckoned that one female may 
give birth to as many as 15,000 5'oung trichinse. The latter 
at first measure about 100 /x x 6 at their broadest part. These 
embryo may be found in the host's intestines, if the contents 
be examined under a magnifying power of about 200. They 
migrate to various parts of the body. In the tissues they 
may reach the length of 1 mm. ; but the genital organs 
remain rudimentary until these larval forms are taken into the 
intestines of another host (Fig. 61). 

Infection of animals and human beings. —When flesh contain- 
ing living larval trichinse is swallowed b}- a susceptible animal, 
the parasites are freed from their tissue connections by the gasti'ic 
juice. They complete their development in the intestines ; the 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 237 

sexes copulate, and the females give birth to a brood of embryos 
about the sixth or seventh dav after the flesh has been eaten. 




Fig. 61. — Trichina sjnralis. ^.Embryo; B. 
Intermediate form ; G. Sexual form (unim- 
pregnated female}. — Leuck akt. 



It is this second generation of embryos that gives rise to the 
intestinal symptoms, and migrates afterwards to other parts 
of the body. The latter they reach either by boring directly 



238 MEAT INSPECTION 

through, the tissues, or by means of the blood and lymph streams 
after they have penetrated into the vessels. The embryos have 
been found in the blood stream by Zenker and others. The 
migrations last for about eight days, starting from the time the 
embryos are bor;i. Human beings are infested l3y eating the flesh 
of affected swine. Swine get the disease by eating trichinous 
rats and mice, or the flesh of their own kind. It is also possible 
that the pig may become tiichinosed by swallowing food con- 
taining pregnant female trichinoe or embryos which have been 
recently excreted from the intestines of other animals. 

The number of parasites necessary to produce trichinosis 
with distinct clinical symptoms is a debatable question ; it is 
certainly large. There is nothing to show, however, that a 
small number of emljryos are destroyed by the digestive juices, 
and thus prevented from gaining their natural habitat. The 
records from the dissecting-rooms are against this conclusion. 
The truth seems to be that in human bemgs the mild and 
isolated cases are diagnosed only at a time when the individual 
is beyond telling whether he ever experienced any of the char- 
acteristic symptoms. The probability is that he did, for the 
proof is there that the parasites have penetrated his flesh. 

It is worthy of note that, whereas the first cases with in- 
disputable clinical symptoms were diagnosed in this country 
in 1871, post-mortem proof of the disease had forty years before 
been many times obtained. This inclines one to ask : Is trich- 
inosis so uncommon as we think ; and are some of the cases 
of so-called muscular rheumatism in human beings not caused 
by the presence of a few trichinoe ? These are questions to be 
answered by the ph3^sician. If there be found reasonable 
grounds for replying in the affirmative, the public have a 
right to be protected from this bodily inconvenience, as far as 
it is possiljle to do so. 

Each female swallowed may give birth to at least 1000 
embryos. Cobbold calculated that there w^ere 85,000 embryos 
present in one ounce of flesh from the Cumberland pig; but 
of course the numlDcr is ]iot so large in all cases— it may be 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 239 

relatively quite small. On the assumiJtioii that half the 
number in the above case would develop into females capable of 
producing 1000 young, Oobbold estimated that three ounces 
of the underdone flesh would infest a human being witli 
about 100,000,000 mucular trichinae. This, he adds, would 
render the host very ill ; but recovery would be possible. The 
above numbers are, of course, only to be accepted as com- 
putatipns. 

Lesions. —The presence in the intestines of a large number 
of embryos gives rise to signs of severe irritation. At this stage 
the flesh, although not dangerous, may show the alterations 
due to fever. The regions most frequently invaded by the 
embryos are the muscular parts of the diaphragm, the muscles 
of the shoulder, loins, larynx, thigh, neck, tongue, cheeks, and 
intercostal muscles. The larvae are often most numerously 
found at the points of insertion of tendons ; the bony 
structures are said to arrest their further progress. Chatin 
states that the fat is often invaded by the larvae, and that 
they are not infrequently found in the intestinal wall. 

In the muscles the parasites are for the most part located 
in the intermuscular tissue ; very occasionally do they, accord- 
ing to Chatin, invade the sarcolemma. At first they excite 
a proliferation in the tissues, and the parasites become sur- 
rounded by fibroblasts, which eventually form into fibrous cysts 
around them. These cysts measure about • 4 mm. x • 25 mm. 
Little can be seen by the naked eye until calcification of the 
cysts has taken place. Then they appear as small white specks, 
which are easily made out. Calcification, however, does not 
begin until several months have passed, so that one must depend 
entirely on the chance of a microscopic examination revealing 
the parasites during the earlier stages. With the microscope 
one can see at first a round cell infiltration in the neighbour- 
hood of the parasites. A little later, granules, which give the 
reaction of glycogen, can also be made out. The fibroblastic 
cells form into connective tissue which encapsules the larvae. 
These cysts may be lemon-shaped or spherical. Usually each 



240 



MEAT INSPECTION 



contains only one parasite, but as many as seven have been 
found in one cyst— Jv^/sies iMlytrichines (Cliatin). The worms 
are coiled up in the cysts, sometimes in S form, sometimes in 
figure of eight (Fig. 62). The muscle fibres around the cyst 
are atrophied ; they may also show hyaline and fatty changes. 
Sometimes they are infiltrated with hme salts. Adipose 
deposits are frequently present in the intermuscular tissue 
near the cyst. The cysts may undergo degenerative changes. 




Fig. 62. — Trichinosed pork, x 45. — Leugkart. 



Even before the formation has assumed a definite structure, 
further development of the parasite may be checked ; the region 
becomes infiltrated with brownish-yellow granules— pigmentary 
degeneration— which appear as specks in the tissue. When 
fully formed the cyst may undergo fatty degeneration, and 
eventually become calcified. These changes, however, are 
seldom seen until many months have passed. 

The parasite may, on the other hand, die and become 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 241 

calcified soon after it lias reached its habitat. At fii-st it 
appears as a petrified image of the original, but later all trace 
of its shape is lost, and only a calcareous nodule marks the seat 
of its former existence. 

In adipose tissue the further develojDment of the parasites 
is often arrested, and a capsule is seldom formed ai'ound those 
which manage to exist. 

In examining muscle for trichinae, a magnification of 10 
diameters is sufficient. Moreover, a low power is convenient, 
as it enables a large field to be examined. Small strands of 
muscle are cut in a longitudinal direction from the parts most 
frequentty affected. These are laid out between wet slides or 
between the plates of a compressing apparatus like that de- 
scribed on page 34. The preparation is pressed until it is thin 
enough to let the light pass freety through it. Then it may be 
examined under the microscope. The muscle may also be teased 
out in water and examined on the plate of adissecting microscope. 
If it be found necessary to decalcify the preparation before 
examination, one of the quicker acting fluids will be found most 
useful. Fatty tissue containing parasites may be fixed on an 
albuminised slide by heat, and when the water has been diiven 
off' the slide can be rinsed in turpentine to dissolve out the fat. 

The parasites can be easily observed without resorting to 
methods of staining, but staining with ordinary reagents is 
sometimes useful in revealing the fact that the parasite is 
dead and undergoing degeneration. In the latter case they 
stajn diffusely, whereas the living ones do not. The parasites 
are not always to be considered alive, however, because they 
do not stain. When killed by salt they retain their outward 
form, and the stains pick out certain parts only ; these cori-espond 
to preparations of tissues which have been fixed. A more 
cei'tain method of determining whether the larvae are alive or 
not is that resorted to by Colin. A small bird— a sparrow, for 
exam^ole— is fed with the trichinous flesh. Eight hours after- 
wards the bird is killed, and its intestinal contents are examined 
under the microscope. The larvse, if alive, will be found moving 
16 



242 MEAT INSPECTION 

about in tlie fluid. The niovenients are accelerated by gently 
heating the slide to 104°. When dead larvse have been swallowed 
they are found in a half-digested condition. 

Other degenerated and calcified parasites in muscle might 
be confused with trichinae. Such an error, however, is only 
likely to be made in the case of calcified lesions, when the form 
of the parasites in question is practically lost. The consequences 
of a mistake of this kind would not be important, because the 
calcified parasites are dead. Encysted larvae of distomata have 
several times been found in the muscles of swine (Fig. 58). It 
has also been stated in another part of this book that muscular 
actinomycosis is not unknown. Concretions of lime and 
crystals of tyrosin, of which the significance is unknov/n, are 
frequently found in the muscles of pigs. The tubes of Kainey 
(see " Psorospermosis of muscle ") are often present alone or 
along with trichinge in pigs' muscles ; but the former are not 
encajosuled, and their appearance is very dift'ei'ent. 

7718^60^^071. —Flesh containing living larval trichinae, no 
matter what be the degree of infestation, should not be allowed 
into the market in the fresh state. If the pigs have been slaugh- 
tered during the intestinal stage— a contingency unlikely to 
arise— it must be left to the inspector to pronounce on the market- 
able quality of the flesh. Flesh containing a large number of 
calcified trichinous cysts, even if it be satisfactorily proved that 
the lai'vse are dead, should be considered unmarketable, because 
one may reasonably object to eat flesh with numerous chalky 
nodules disseminated through it. 

The larvae are destroj'^ed in a joint that has been thoroughly 
cooked ; that is to say, when the flesh has assumed a greyish 
colour in its deepest layer. In such a condition the flesh might 
be sold, did custom admit of it in this countr3^ It is hardly 
necessary to mention that joints are often served at our tables 
in a half-done condition. Although the irate husband may 
order away the oft'ending dish, the tears of the wife may prevail, 
and result in the family partaking of half-raw pork. Vallin 
experimenting on rabbits with trichinous flesh, which had been 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 243 

exposed for twenty minutes to a temperature of 60° C, found 
tliat it was no longer harmful. A piece of flesh weighing 6 
kilos. (13 lbs.) required four hours' boihng to get the above 
temj^erature in the centre ; pieces over 6 kilos, in weight re- 
quired five and a half hours, but in that time one-foui^th of the 
original weight had been lost. Colin's results, olrtained fifteen 
years before, were j)ractically the same. Fjord stated the time 
necessary for hygienic cooking to be less than this — about 
twenfy minutes 2)er lb. — if the meat be put into boiling water. 
The exact time, however, is not of much pi-actical import- 
ance. The cooking temperature kills the parasites, and if there 
be no red flesh left in the centre, hai-m will not result. 

It has already been pointed out, however, that the domestic 
cook is far from being infallible, therefore the sale of trichinous 
poi'k must be controlled. 

Pickling and smoking are sure methods of destroying the 
muscle trichinge, provided the process he, carried on for a suffi- 
cient length of time to enable the reagent to penetrate to every 
part of the flesh. One speaks of dry and wet pickling, but in 
reality there is onl}'' one method, for dry salt and nitre put over 
flesh absorljs water from the atmosphere, and penetrates in 
saturated solution. 

A great deal of discussion arose twenty 3'ears ago regarding 
the use of preserved American pork, which often contains 
larj^al trichinse. 

In 1881 the importation of American pork into France 
wag^ |orbidden. This embargo is still in force, although the 
Academic Boyale de Medecine in the seance of 5th February 
188.4 voted that American fully-cured pork was not dangerous. 
In the discussion on M. Colin's paper, Proust pointed out that 
the dock labourers at Ha^^e had for years eaten this cured 
pork in the raw state, yet no cases of trichinosis had been heard 
of. In Great Britain we have obtained the bulk of our pre- 
served pork from America for many years. In 1897 we received 
from the United States 141,428 cwts. of salt pork, 3,592,635 
cwts. of bacon, and 1,603,533 cwts. of hams, but no cases of 



2 44 ME A T INSPE CTION 

tricliinosis sufl&ciently severe, at least, to allow of diagnosis during 
life have been recorded. We do not submit the imported flesh 
to the detailed examination which it undergoes in Germany, 
therefore we have no reason to conclude that the material sent 
hei'e is freer from trichinae than that imported into the former 
country. Colin, in his paper of 1884, reported the results of 
his experiments with trichinous flesh which had been embedded 
in ^Dickie or jilaced in brine— saturated salt solution. After 
three weeks the trichinoe at the depth of \\ in. from the surface 
were dead. In large hams the jDarasites might be alive in the 
deeper parts after fifteen days' salting. None ^vere found alive 
in hams salted for two or three months. Colin concluded 
that six weeks' salting would be efficacious in the majority of 
cases. On the other hand, Chatin obtained several positive results 
by feeding guinea-pigs on American cured pork. Girard and 
Pabst have seen movements occur in the larvae from cm'ed 
pork after warming the slide to 42° C. The latter observations, 
however, do not show that curing does not kill the larvae, but 
rather that the process is sometimes incompletely carried out. 
Along with these positive results many negative ones were 
obtained. The observation of Fourment, oft quoted, in which 
trichinae were found alive in pieces of flesh which had been 
covered with salt for fifteen months, is of no value, for the 
salting was performed in dry air in a sealed tube. 

It is well known in the history of trichinosis epidemics that 
people who ate fresh trichinous flesh suffered severely from 
the disease, while those partaking of the flesh of the same 
animal after salting were affected only slightly, or not at all. 
The evidence up to date is certainly not in favour of the 
wholesale seizure of cured pork when it contains trichinae. 

Improperly salted flesh soon goes wrong, and is there- 
fore the less likely to be consumed by human beings. With 
sausages the conditions are different, for the contained pork 
is seldom properly salted throughout, and they are almost 
never cooked through and through. The Editor is of opinion 
that imported sausages should be subjected to a severe in- 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 245 

spection, not only on account of tiicliinosis, but for other 
obvious i-easons. 

Should trichinosis be found in fresh jDork, one could not in 
justice deny to the owner the right to sell it, after it has been 
properly cured, seeing that we accept American cured flesh 
without any inspection. 



ASCARIDES 

Different varieties of ascaris are found in the small intestines 
of calves (A. vituli), sheejD (A. ovis), and pigs (A. suillce). They 
are cylindrical worms, measuring from 4 to 10 in. in length. 
They are pointed at the extremities, and the body has usually 
the thickness of a quill. The integument is white or yellowish 
in colour, but red streaks can be seen underneath this outer 
covering. Large numbers of ascarides may be present in an 
animal without giving rise to any serious lesions. They are 
very common in pigs, and they usually frequent the small 
intestine. Vallisneiri of Padua, so long ago as 1712, drew 
attention to a peculiar odour given oS from the flesh of calves 
which had harboured large numbers of ascarides in their 
intestines. Morot has recently observed the same kind of 
odour in the flesh of a calf whose intestines contained over 
one hundred ascarides. Laubion says that he has frequently 
had experience of the same condition in calves. The odour 
persists for days, and it is not removed by cooking. The 
flesh, moreover, has a peculiar taste. The odour is described 
as sourish (aigrelette). It has been known for a long time that 
the ascarides themselves give oft' a peculiarly pungent odour 
which in some individuals causes symptoms analogous to those 
of hay fever. It seems likely that the flesh becomes permeated 
by the same odoriferous agent, whatever it be. 

Inspection.— JjSiuhioii reports that many individuals con- 
sume the flesh without suft'ering any inconvenience, while 
others are nauseated by the smell. Morot considers that the 
flesh of animals, when it exhales this odour in a marked degree, 



246 



ME A T INSFE CTION 



should be withdrawn from consumption or sold in la basse 
houcherie. Ascarides in the intestines excrete poisons which 
may cause serious trouble in animals, but more especially in 
human beings. The symptoms are those of nervous disorder, 
itching of the skin, and respiratory catarrh. 

We do not know that ingestion of flesh of the above 
description has been the cause of serious trouble in any 
individual, but the Editor is of opinion that the abnormal 
odour is of itself a sufhoient reason for considering the carcase 
unmarketable. The intestines which contain the ascarides and 
their eggs should in all cases be destroyed. 



ECHINORHYNCHUS GIGAS 



This worm belongs really to the AcanthocejDliali. It in- 
habits the small intestines of the pig. It is never seen in 




Fig. 63.— Head of Echino- 
rhynchus gigas. x 10. — 
Eailliet, Neumann. 




Fig. 64. — Echinorhynchus gigas (male) 
attached to the intestine. — Railliet, 
Neumann. 



British pigs, but it may be met with in those imported from 
the United States. It is said to be f]-equently met with in 
German and Erench pigs. 

The worm is cylindrical, but tapers tov\^ards the posterior 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 247 

extremity. Its colour is greyish, witli sometimes a violet 
tinge. The male measm-es from 2i to 3ixi in., and the 
female has a length of from 8 to 14 in. The head has a 
globular rostellum, which is armed with five or six rows of 
spines (Fig. 63). 

Lesious.— The worms bury their heads deeply in the mucous 
membrane of the intestine. Small abscesses, of about the size 
of a^ hemp-seed, form at the seats of the wounds which 
they cause. These project on the serous surface, and give 
it a pearly appearance. The mucous and serous surfaces may 
show inflammatory patches. Sometimes the bowel is per- 
forated, in which case peritonitis results. The carcases are 
often emaciated and dropsical. 

Inspect-ioTi.— The bowel may be useless for the manufacture 
of sausages, but the carcase need not be interfered with unless 
the flesh is so altered as to render it unmarketable. 

GISOPHAGOSTOMA COLUMBIANUM (Curtice) 

This parasite in its adult state inhabits the intestines of 
sheep. It is frequently met with in some parts of America, 
but it is unknown in British sheep. The lesions caused by 
this parasite were often seen at the Edinburgh abattoir when 
sheep imported from America were slaughtered in the city. 
The male measm^es from 12 to 15 mm., and is provided with a 
caudal bursa. The females are longer— 14 to 18 mm. The 
adults are found in the caecum and the parts of the bowel 
posterior to it. When the embryos are hatched they burrow 
beneath the mucous membrane of the bowel, and give rise 
to nodules in which they undergo further development. The 
largest embryos in the nodules measure from 3 to 4 mm., and 
the smallest about -7 mm. 

LesioTis. — As already stated, nodules are formed in the 
bowel. These are most numerous on the caecum and posterior 
portions of the large intestine, but they may also be present 
in the small bowel. Thev range in size from a pin-head to a 



248 ME A T INSPE CTION 

hazel-nut (Fig. 65). The smaller ones look like sacs filled with 
fluid, and a small globular body is found floating inside. If 
this internal cyst be opened, and its contents examined under 
the microscope, the embryo will be seen. The larger nodules 
contain a greenish-yellow cheesy material and larger parasites. 



v 



'v./ 




Fig. 65. — Lesions caused by (Usophagostoma ColumManuni. — Curtice. 
(ft) Lesions in bowel (nat. size) ; {b) microscopical section of nodule. 

The oldest nodules are very hard ; the central portion has 
dried up, and the embryos have in many cases departed. 
Sometimes the mucous membrane over the larger nodules 
undergoes necrosis, and ulcers result. Histologically, the 
earliest nodules are composed of round cells and embryos. 
Later, the central cells have undergone degeneration, and 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 249 

the peripheral part of the nodule has become fibrous (Fig. 65). 
The lesion is similar to an encapsuled abscess. The maturer 
embryos escajDe into the intestinal canal. 

Degenerated nodules may also be found in the lymphatics 
of the omentum and in the liver. 

Ins'pection.—Th.Q bowel is valueless for use as sausage skins ; 
it should be destroyed. 

The flesh is usually not of bad quality, but, when the bowel 
lesions are numerous, the carcase may be too emaciated for 
the market. 

EUSTEONGYLUS GIGAS 

This parasite — the giant strongylus — is very uncommon. 
Carnivorous animals are its usual hosts ; but it has been found 
in the ox. The worm is round, of a reddish colour, and tapers 
towards the extremities. The male may reach the length 
of 12 ins., and the female 36 ins. 

The worms are found in the renal pelvis. They destroy 
the kidney substance, which may be so hollowed out that it 
looks like a thin-walled cyst. Little is known about its 
systemic eft'ects. 

STRONGYLI OF HOOSE 

The term hoose is applied populai'ly to inflammatory affec- 
tions of the lungs of ruminants and pigs, caused by strongyli. 
The parasites are most frequently seen in 3'oung animals. 

The parasites. — In sheep and goats one meets with two 
parasites— the S. filaria and *S^. rufescens, or Pseudalius ovis 
pulmonalis (Koch). The S. rufescens is the most common. 
It is of a reddish-brown colour, thread-like, and measures 
from 18 to 25 mm. (f-1 in.) in the male, and from 25 to 35 mm. 
(1-lf in.) in the female. The females are oviparous, and the 
eggs as well as the hatched embryos are found in the lungs. 

The eggs are elliptical, and measure about 90 //, x 40 //,. The 
length, however, depends to some extent on the pressure to 
which they have been subjected. They are of a brownish 



250 MEAT INSPECTION 

colour, granular, and the granules stain with eosin. The 
embryos are about 360 /a long. If examined in fluid, they 
move about actively with a twisting motion. In the quiescent 
embryo the posterior part is coiled on itself. 

The ^. filaria is white in colour. It is thicker and longer 
than the rufescens. The male measures from 3 to 5 cm. 
(li- 2 in.), the female may reach a length of 8 cm. (3^- in.). 
The female is viviparous. The embryos measure 540 /x, x 20 /i. 

The lung parasite of the ox is the S. micrurus. It is fili- 
form and of a white colour. The male measures 4 cm. (If in.) 
and the female about 6 cm. (2f in.). The latter is viviparous. 

In the pig, hoose is caused by the S. paradoxus. This worm 
is also white and thread-like. The male measures from 20 
to 25 mm., and the female from 25 to 40 mm. The female is 
either oviparous or viviparous. 

Lesions.— The S. rufescens is the most common of the lung 
parasites, although the adult worms are seldom numerously 
present. 

The lesions caused by it are present in the lungs of 99 per 
cent, of the yearling sheep killed in Edinburgh ; but they are 
not all affected in the same degree. Old sheep are also affected, 
but not to quite the same extent. Probably lesions were 
present in the lungs of some of them in their youth, but have 
disappeared. 

The lesions do not always take the same form. In 
yearlings the changes in the lung are almost always the same. 
The organ is somewhat firmer than normal. Its surface 
presents a blotched appearance ; some patches are dark brown 
in colour, while others are of a pale pink. Nodules of a 
yellowish-white colour are seen both on the surface and in the 
substance of the organ, but more particularly in the former 
situation. The distribution is irregular. Some of them show 
a greenish (chlorotic) tinge. They are firm in consistence, and 
range in size from a pin-head to a marble, but the larger ones 
are only present under the pleura. 

Although they have the appearance of being quite solid. 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 251 

they float in water. On section these large nodules look as 
if they were made uj) of several small ones. Some of the 
smaller ones may be calcified. 

If a scraping from one of the larger nodules be examined 
under a low power of the microscope, it will be found to contain 
innumerable eggs and embryos. Portions of the adults con- 
taining eggs will also be seen. In some cases — usually in older 
animals— no nodules are present. The lungs, which are much 
solider than normal, show only a blotched appearance on the 
surface. On section the colour is a deep pink, and the surface 
feels slimv. 




Fig. 66. — Section of lung of slieep, slio-\viiig a disseminated pseudo-tuberculosis 
(parasitic) lesion. 

Immediately under the pleura in the darker areas the 
tissue is still more solid ; it is collapsed. Scrapings from the 
superficial parts and smaller tubes show large numbers of 
eggs and embryos. 

In yet another form, which is also seen most frequently in 
older sheep, the blotched appearance is absent. Both lungs 
stand out prominently, and a very large number of miliary 
nodules are- regularly distributed through their substance. 
They are whitish in colour, or they may present a chlorotic 
hue. This lesion looks like the result of a blood stream 
invasion (Fig. 66). 

The nodular forms are often referred to as pseudo-tuber- 



2 5 2 ME A T INSPE CTION 

culosis, but it is advisable to qualify tlie term by the word 
parasitic to prevent confusion with the bacterial disease, 
f Histologically, the youngest nodules consist of a collection 
of leucocytes. The parasites are small in this stage, and they 
are absent from most of the sections. In the more advanced 
lesions many of the nodules show sections of a parasite coiled 




Fig. 67.— Lung of sheep showing the lesion of parasitic pseudo- 
tuberculosis. The centre of the tubercle contains sections 
of the parasite (Reich ert, obj. 3). 

up in the centre (Fig. 67). Some of them are calcified. 
Cells with brightly staining nuclei are densely packed around 
the worm. Caseation may be jDresent, but not nearly to 
the same extent as in a tuberculous nodule. Outside the 
central mass the cells are not so densely packed, and manj^ of 
them are epithelioid in character. The inner zone is sometimes 
separated from the outer part lay caseous patches, in which 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 253 

giant cells are present. The peripheral portion of the nodule 
is made up of large round or angular cells, and there may be 
young fibrous tissue. The lung tissue near the nodules is 
usually open. This lesion resembles that of true tuberculosis 
both in its macroscopic and microscopic characters, but the 
chief differential points have been already referred to (see 




Fig. 68. — Lung of sheep, sliowing eggs and embryos of the Strongylus 
rufcsccns (Reichert, obj. 3). 

Tuberculosis, Pathognomonic Characters of the Lesion). In 
sections of the large nodules one sees that the lung tissue ovei- 
a considerable area is infiltrated with cells, and many eggs and 
embryos are present. Sections of older or even adult worms 
are also found, and a typical pseudo-tubercle is sometimes seen 
in the area. 

In those solider parts in which there are no nodules, the 
air cells contain a catarrhal exudate— leucocytes and epithelial 



254 MEAT INSPECTION 

cells. Those towards the surface of the organ are collapsed, 
or they may contain eggs and embryos. Many of the eggs 
are segmenting, while others contain the embryo. The 
bronchial walls are infiltrated with round cells, and the 
lining membrane is in a state of catarrh (Fig. 68). 

In several cases the Editor has found nodules and free 
embryos in the mediastinal glands. M'Fadyean has described 
still another form which the lesion may assume in very chronic 
cases. The lung becomes indurated by the formation of 










^,f ...... ■^..^- .:.... 

Fig. 69. — Microscopical section uf sheep's lung, showing fibroid 
pneumonia caused by the S. rufcscens. The papillomatous 
and adenomatous structure is seen at a and h. — M'Fadyean. 

new tissue. Large areas are solidified and of a dirty white 
colour. The pleura is thickened, and the two sm^faces may 
be adherent. 

The microscope shows a great increase in the fibrous tissue 
of the organ. Many of the infundibula are distorted, and 
some of the smaller bronchi show papillomatous growths from 
their mucous membrane. The appearance of the section is 
very like that of an adenoma (Fig. 69). 

The ;S^. -jilaria, micrurus, and jmradoxus are found in the 
bronchial tubes. No eggs or embryo are met with in the air 
cells, except occasionally in the case of the paradoxus. Nodular 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 255 

pneumonia has also been described in the pig's lung, but 
the lesion is rare. 

Usually the lungs are consolidated in small patches, and 
the tubes contain a quantity of frothy mucous. The para- 
sites may be so numerous that they block the tubes, or only 
a few may be found in the terminal portions. In some cases 
the whole of both organs is moderately consolidated. Their 
colour is greyish white all over, and on section the surface 
feels ^icky. 

The microscope shows a catarrhal exude in the air cells, 
and other signs of broncho-pneumonia. Some of the air cells 
are ruptured (emphysema). 

Inspection.— M.o^t of the young sheep and many of the 
older animals are in prime condition, notwithstanding the 
presence of parasitic lesions in their lungs. Sometimes, how- 
ever, the flesh is fevered, or the carcases may be emaciated, 
watery, and consequently unmarketable. The fevered con- 
dition is usually due to an acute pneumionia, which has super- 
vened on the parasitic disease ; and, in the experience of the 
Editor, other parasites, which could account more satisfactorily 
for the emaciation, are often present. With regard to the 
lungs themselves, the practice in Edinburgh is to seize only 
those organs in which the lesions are numerous or wide-spread. 
Were the inspectors to seize every sheep's lung affected with 
parasitic disease, lights, as the butchers call them, would be 
hardly obtainable in the market. 

INSECTS 

The parasitic insects are ectozoa, with the exception of the 
larval forms of the Pentastoma. 

AEACHNIDiE 

mange; scabies; psoric aoaeiasis; scab in sheep 

Mange is a parasitic disease of the skin caused by different 
varieties of acari. 



2 5 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

Animals affected.— 'Every animal, including man, may 
suffer from scabies. Tlie parasites are not the same in all cases, 
altliougli they belong to the same species. Therefore, it is 
customary to qualify the term " mange " by the class of acarus 
which gives rise to it. In the horse we meet with sarcoptic, 
psoroptic, and symbiotic mange, but not with the folliculai- 
variety. In cattle, sarcoptic mange is rare, Ijut the symbiotic 
and psoroptic forms are j^retty common in our town cows. 

FoUicular mange is rarely seen in cattle; but it is not 
unknown. Sheep are attacked most frequently Ij}^ psoroptic 
mange, the symbiotic and sarcoptic forms are much less 
frequent, and the follicular variety has seldom been recorded. 

The commoner mange of the pig is sarcoptic, but follicular 
scabies (Demodex jjhylloides of Czoker) has not infrequently 
been met with : Czoker found twenty-two cases in one herd. 
The goat occasionally suft'ers from sarcoptic mange, and the 
demodex has been found in one or two cases. Rabljits are very 
often affected with sarcoptic mange ; the Editor has several 
times seen whole warrens attacked. Poultry harbour a goodly 
numlier of acari which do not cause mange, but they are 
also frequently the hosts of psoric sarcoptes. Man suffers from 
sarcoptic mange, and he is frequently infected by contact 
with animals. 

The parasites.— With, the exception of the demodex, they 
belong to the family Sarcoptidse. Of the Sarcoptidse there 
are three classes— the sarcoptes, the psoroptes, and the symbiotes. 

In some of the classes there is more than one variety, iDut 
in a treatise of this kind it is only necessary to mention the 
general characters of each class. The Demodex belongs to 
the family Demodecidse. All the mange acari are oviparous ; 
most of them are invisible to the naked eye, but, ^vith the 
exception of the sarcoptes, can be easily enough seen with a 
magnifying power of ten diameters. They have many common 
characters. 

Sarcoptes. —The body is oval, the head is short, thick, and 
shaped like a horseshoe. In point of size they are the smallest 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 257 

variety, measuring • 2- • 5 mm. The legs are very short ; when 
the insect hes on its face they hardly project beyoiid the body. 
As in the other acari, the legs number eight in the adult, and six 
in the larva. They end in bell-shaped suckers or in claws and 
long hairs. The male sarcoptes has suckers on the first, second, 
and fourth pair of legs ; the female has them on the first and 




Fig. 70. — Sarcoptes scabiei. 

second pair. The sarcoptes of the fowl, howevei", has suckers 
on all four pairs. 

Psoroptes or Dermatodectes. — They are longer than the 
sarcoptes— -5- -8 mm. The head is long and pointed, and the 
legs project well beyond the body. Suckers are present on 
the first, second, and third pair of legs in the male, and on the 
first, second, and fourth pair in the female. 

Symljiotes or Chorioptes. —They measure • 3- • 5 mm. The 
breadth of the head is greater than its length, and it ends bluntly 
in front. The male has suckers on all four pairs of legs ; the 
female has them on the first, second, and fourth pair. 
17 



258 



ME A T INSPE CTION 



Demodex foUiculoruni (Owen). —This parasite is very dif- 
ferent from the others. The head is bhmt at its anterior part, 
and seems to be in a piece with the thorax at its posterior. The 
thorax shows on its under-surface a longitudinal ridge (sternum), 
from which four transverse bands pass to each side. The latter, 
however, are absent in the young. The adults possess four pairs 
of legs, which are fixed on the thorax ; the larvae have only three 
pairs. The abdomen is finely striated across, and tapers towards 





Fig. 71.— Demodex of pig. x 250. A.Male; 
B. Female. — Neumann. 



the posterior extremity. More than one variety of demodex 
is recognised. The chief dift'erence seems to be in the size, 
which varies from • 22 to • 24 mm. in length, and from • 2 to 
•6 mm. in breadth (Fig. 71). 

The parasites of mange can in most cases be discovered 
in scrapings taken from the affected parts with a blunt 
scalpel. The material may be examined in the dry state, or 
after the scales and hair have been triturated with liquor potasscB 
(solution, 1 in 20). By gently warming the dry material on the 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 259 

slide, the sarcoptidce are made to move ; the demodex is motion- 
less. The Editor prefers the potash method, for by it the acari 
are more clearty seen, and many of them are set free from the 
epidermic crusts by which they are often surrounded. When 
the acari are scarce he adds plenty of potash solution, pre- 
cipitates the solids in the centrifuge, and examines the residue. 
When looking for the demodex it is unnecessary to add any 




Fig. 72. — Sarcoptic mange on head of sheep. 

fluid. In cases which have been treated, and in some forms of 
sarcoptic mange, it is sometimes very hard to find a single 
acarus; but this is of less importance to the Meat Inspector 
than to the practitioner. 

Lesions. — Sarcoptic and demodecic mange are the most 
serious, because the parasites tend to burrow beneath the 
epidermis. 

Sarcoptic mange is as a general rule found on the parts 



26o MEAT INSPECTION 

of the body where the hair is thin, especially about the head. 
It may, however, spread all over the body. In the sheep, the 
goat, the pig, and the rabbit, one finds grey furfur-like and 
honeycombed crusts of dry epidermis around the eyes and 
along the nose. In bad cases the whole face and head are 
covered. Fig. 72 is from the photograph of a case in a sheep 
which came under the Editor's notice. In the earlier stages, 
of course, the lesion is not so marked : there may be only 
slight depilation and a few papules or scabs. The surface 
below the crusts is red, and the latter contain a good number 
of parasites. 

Two varieties of sarcoptic mange are met with in poultry ; 
scabies of the legs (sarcoptes mutans) and scabies of the body 
(sarcoptes Icevis). In the former the legs become covered by 
thick greyish crusts ; in the latter the chief symptom is falling 
out of the feathers. The skin underneath is little altered. 

Psoroptic mange. —It generally occurs on the neck and 
body. In cattle it is seen more particularly on the neck, the 
croup, and the base of the tail. The lesions are seldom serious. 
The hair over the affected parts is thin ; the skin is scaly, 
and shows both papules and scabs. In the sheep the lesions 
are found on the shoulder, the back, and the croup, inside 
the thighs, and under the belly. Papules, scabs, and even 
pustules are present. The fleece is matted by the dried dis- 
charges, and it is easily pulled out. Eaw sores of considerable 
extent are often present. 

Symbiotic mange.— The lesions in this case are the least 
serious. There is often little more than an epithehal desqua- 
mation. It occurs mostly on the extremities, especially around 
the coronets in cattle and sheep. The symbiotes are sometimes 
present along with the psoroptes in mange of the croup in cows. 

Follicular mange.— The Meat Inspector seldom meets with 
mange in this form ; it is mainly seen in young dogs. The lesions 
are usually confined to the head, the neck, and the shoulder. 
The parasites invade the sebaceous glands. At first only 
depilated and desquamating patches are seen, but as the 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 261 

parasites increase in number and germs gain access to the 
inflamed glands these begin to suppurate. Numerous pustules 
appear on the skin, and large abscesses may form underneath 
it. The skin becomes very thick and rugous (scleroderma). 
The demodex can be found in the scurf, and later in the slimy 
blood-stained pus. 

In all forms of mange the animal may become much emaci- 
ated. ^ The original lesions may have been rendered much more 
serious, at least from the Meat Inspector's point of view, by the 
application of severe remedies to the skin, or owing to the 
animal having rubbed the sores. 

Inspection.— It is by contact with skins of mangy animals 
that men may contract the disease. The butcher who dresses 
the carcase runs a certain amount of risk ; the consumer runs 
none. The diseased parts are in most cases removed with 
the skin ; but injuries from rubbing, from septic contamination 
of the wounds, or from the application of severe irritants, may 
be great enough to render the carcase unmarketable in whole 
or part. When the damage is local, the unsightly parts can 
be removed, and the remainder passed. It not infrequently 
happens, however, that in animals slaughtered after the 
application of a severe counter-irritant the flesh is very dark 
in colour, and does not set well. Such carcases are unfit 
for the market. It is possil)le that the carcases of sheep 
with raw sores on their skins, if the animals have been 
dipped in arsenical solutions shortly before death, might prove 
harmful to the consumer. Evidence, however, is wanting on 
this point, and it would always be difficult to get a correct 
history. 

Emaciated carcases, of course, call for seizure, according to 
the degree. 

BoTS OE Warbles 

These are larval forms of certain flies, two of which are of 
interest to the Meat Inspector, viz. Hypoderma or Oestrus 
hovis, and 0. avis. 



262 MEAT INSPECTION 

During the summer months the female hj^poderma lays 
her eggs on the skm of oxen, particularly aljout the regions 
of the back and flanks. The embryos penetrate to the sub- 
cutaneous tissues, where they jDass through several stages of 
development, which last about nine months. 

In the earlier stages they are club-shaped, and of a whitish 
colour. At the termination of the period of their parasitic exist- 
ence the pupa case beneath the skin measures about 1 in. 
X \ in. The capsules are elevated into circular ridges to the 
number of eleven, and show spines on the surface. In colour 
they are yellowish and speckled with brown. 

The mature bot of the 0. ovis is about the same length as 
that of the ox, but it is narrower and shows transverse mark- 
ings of a brownish colour on the segments. The bot of the 
sheep has its habitat in the nasal cavities and sinuses of the 
head. 

Lesions.— These parasites usually give rise to no appreciable 
lesions during the first few months of their parasitic existence. 
Little is noticed until the spring of the next year. 

In the ox small fibrous nodules appear under the skin. 
These ultimately reach the size of a small walnut. Their 
summits are perforated by a hole from which pus exudes. 
Under the skin small haemorrhages may be found, and some- 
times there are collections of pus. On the other hand, the wound 
may have healed after the parasite has dropped out, and in 
this case only a cicatrix is left. The number of nodules varies 
from a single one to a hundred, or even more. 

In the sheep the mucous membrane of the nasal cavities 
and sinuses is tumefied. Sometimes pus is present in the 
cavities, and there is a discharge from the nostrils. 

Inspection.— In the case of the ox the lesions are for the 
most part removed with the skin. When small hoemorrhages 
or collections of pus are present, it may be found necessary to 
remove certain parts of the subcutaneous tissue and the panni- 
culus before allowing the carcase to go into the market. In 
dealing with sheep, the head should be seized when there is 



DISEASES CA USED B V ANIMAL PARASITES 263 

evidence of catarrh of the membranes ; otherAvise the carcase 
is usually quite marketable. 



Maggots 

These are the larvae of certain flies, which are often de- 
posited on wounds of man and animals. 

According to Portchinsky, the larvae of the Sarcophaga 
magniflca are most frequently found. Various members of 
the genus Lucilia dejDosit their eggs on abraded surfaces. 

These larvae measure about half an inch in length. They 
are of a greyish colour, wire-like, annulated, and actively motile. 
They irritate a wound or abraded surface, and cause the animals 
to rub the part against fixed objects. In this way a trivial 
wound may be converted into a large su^Dpurating patch. In 
the hotter months, many sheep, especially young animals, are 
often seriously inconvenienced by these parasites. A common 
seat is the region of the anus after it has become excoriated 
by the discharges when the animals have suffered from 
diarrhoea. 

The animals rub the al)raded surface, which may ultimately 
extend over the croup. 

The skin is swollen, and its surface is raw. Frequently 
the wound exhales a foetid odour. The wool may have fallen 
off, or it may be matted by a dried purulent discharge. Some- 
times the maggots even burrow beneath the skin. 

Insijection.—The tissue underlying the sores may be so 
disfigured as to call for partial seizure. Unless emaciation 
is marked, as is sometimes the case, the rest of the carcase may 
be passed. 

Phthiriasis or Lousiness 

All animals are liable to be invaded l^y lice. These insects 
live on the skin and produce a certain amount of irritation. 
The hosts may under these circumstances rub themselves and 
produce abrasions on the skin, and depilation. When lice are 



264 



MEAT INSPECTION 



present on an animal in large numbers they may give rise to 
a certain amount of emaciation ; but it sboiild be mentioned 
that animals in very poor condition, and those wasted by 
disease, frequently harbour large numbers of lice. They may 
sometimes be seen to swarm on cows in the last stages of 
tuberculosis. The lice of cattle belong to the genera Hcema- 
topinus and Trichodectes. Sheep are invaded by the Tricho- 





FiG. 73.-— Female Heematojxlnus euryster- 
nusofox. X 20.— Neumann. 



Fig. 74. — Female Rmviatojnniis 
tenuirostris of ox. x 20. — 

Neumann. 



dectes Sphcerocephalus and b}^ the Melophagus ovinus (ked), 
which is the commoner. The pig harbours the Hcem-atojjinus 
sms. 

The large size of these insects would of itself enable one 
to distinguish them from the mange parasites in most cases; 
but of course there are many other distinguishing features, 
which may be seen on the subjoined figures (Figs. 73-76). The 
Hcematopinus varies from 2-5 to 3 mm. in length in the ox, to 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 265 

4 to 5 mm. in the pig. The Trichodedes in sheep and cattle 
measures over 1-5 mm. in most cases. The Melophagus is 
from 3 to 5 mm. long. 

Inspection.— Lou&ine&s, of itself does not damage the flesh 
of animals, but emaciation may co-exist with the presence 
of the parasites, or there may be superficial sores. In the 
latter circumstances the whole or a part of the carcase may 
be reiiilered unmarketable ; but it is seldom that the abrasions 





Fig. 75. — Female Trtcliodedes scalaris Fig. 76. — Melophagus ovinus. — Neu- 
of ox. X 20. — Neumann. mann. The black line indicates 

tlie natural size. 

affect the underlying tissues to an extent which calls even for 
partial seizure. 

IXODID^ 

The most important members of this group are the Ixodes 
or Ticks. They are temporary parasites on sheep, and cattle 
and other vertebrates. They are much larger than the mange 
acari. The males measure about 3 mm. in length x 1-5 mm. 
The empty females vary from 4 to 8 mm. x 2-5 mm. When 
gorged with l^lood which they suck from their hosts the 
females may measure as much as 10 mm. x 6 mm. They are 
found on animals from May to October. 

Xmons.— These parasites make small punctures on the 
skin in order to feed. Sometimes the woTinds are transformed 
into pustules, but the deeper tissues are seldom affected. Ticks, 



2 6 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

however, are believed sometimes to inoculate their hosts with 
certain vegetable and animal parasites. 

Inspection. — So far as the tick is concerned, the lesions 
are of no importance to the Meat Inspector. They are removed 
with the skin. 



Pentastoma denticulatum or t^nioides 

This is the larval form of the Pentastoma tcenioides. The 
adult parasites are found in the air passages, particularly in 
the nasal cavities of the dog. They have on rare occasions 
been met with in the horse, the sheep, the goat, and in 
human beings. The females lay eggs to the number of half 
a million in the respiratory passages. The eggs are discharged 
on to the pastures, and in this way the food of herbivorous 
animals may be contaminated. 

Animals affected.— It is principally with the larval forms 
that the inspector is concerned. These are found chiefly in 
oxen, sheep, and rabbits, but they have also been found in the 
horse, the cat, the deer, the goat, and in man. Apparently, 
all animals may become infested if the opportunity occurs. 

In this country the parasites are exceedingly rare, if we 
may judge from the number of times the presence of the 
adult has been recorded in the dog. The Editor has not 
met with a single case of the denticulatuvi in sheep or oxen 
slaughtered at the Edinburgh abattoir during the last seven 
years, and no cases have been recorded from other abattoirs. 
In some parts of the world, however, the parasite is com- 
paratively common. Friedberger and Frohner say that the 
pentastoma is frequently met with at Berlin and Munich. 
BalDes has observed the denticulata ver}' frequently in 
Roumanian cattle. In the United States it has been met 
with in two raljbits l^y Kilborne and Curtice. 

The parasite.— The immature parasite passes through 
several stages in the bodies of its intermediary bearers. 

When the eggs are swallowed the embryos are set free in the 




DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 267 

intestines. These embryos measure ISO^xGOju-. Tliey resemble 
acari in shape. The dorsal surface is convex and the ventral 
is flat. They have two pairs of legs, each of which ends in 
two claws. At their anterior part they are armed with a 

boring apparatus shaped like a 
spur. The embryos bore their 
way into the abdominal and 
thoracic organs, where they be- 
come encysted. In the cysts 
they lose their legs and boring 
apparatus, and become trans- 
formed into pupse, measuring -3 
Fig. 77. — Pupa of Linguahda mm. X -18 mm. During the next 
teenioides nine weeks old. — ■ .1.11 i 

Leuckakt, Neitmank. ^^^ ^^^'^^^t^^ *^e l^^^a undergoes 

several changes, which result in 
the form termed Linguatula denticulata. In this form it 
measures from 6 to 8 mm. It is shaped like an almond. The 
body is denticulated at its margins, and is made up of from 
80 to 90 rings. It has hooks on its anterior end. The digestive 
tube runs the whole length of the body. The genital organs 
are rudimentary (Fig. 78). 

Lesions.— The embryos penetrate to the mesenteric glands, 
the liver, the lungs, and less frequently to the kidneys. At first 
there is little alteration in the organs, but the invaded ones 
become hollowed out by small cavities as the parasites develop. 
The neighbouring cavities become confluent, and form larger 
cysts. In this way a gland may undergo atrophy, and be 
converted into a small cyst containing nothing but a brownish 
fluid and larvse. At first the invaded glands show to the naked 
eye only a few brownish coloured spots. They ultimately 
become fibrous, and may show tubercle-like areas. Many of 
the denticulata perforate the walls of the C3'sts and gain the 
peritoneal cavity. According to Leuckart, they may again 
pierce the other abdominal organs or migrate to the lungs 
(Fig. 79). _ 

The animals whose mesenteric glands are extensivelv in- 



268 



MEAT INSPECTION 



vaded are often emaciated, and their flesh is pale, flabby, and 
oedematous. 

/7ispeciio7i. — Dogs are infected with the adult pentastoma 
by eating the organs of sheep and cattle containing the 
denticulafa. The larvae gain the nasal cavities by way of the 
nostrils or pharynx, and become mature.- The adults have 
been so seldom found in human beings that we are almost 





Fig. 79. — Lung of rabbit infected 
witb Pentastomida. 



Fig. 78. — Pentastomvm deviiculaticm. 



bound to conclude that the risk of direct infection to man is 
very small. With regard to infection of human beings by the 
denticulata, Leuckart says that it takes place usiially through 
infected dogs smelling or licking the hands. He also says 
that men are only invaded by small numbers of the larval 
parasites. There is nothing, however, against the supposition 
that human beings may be infected by using plates from 



DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES 269 

wliicli dogs liave fed, or by eating garden vegetables upon 
which they have deposited the eggs of the parasite by 
sneezing. 

The diseased organs should not only be excluded from the 
market, but they should be put beyond the reach of dogs 
by being immediately destroyed. Destruction of the organs 
will not only protect the dog from the pentastoma, but also 
human beings whom it might infect with the dentiaulata. 
There is no evidence to show that the dentiaulata ever migrate 
to the muscles. The carcase, then, may be passed, provided 
it is not emaciated or dropsical. 



UNCLASSED DISEASES 

In this chapter will be described such diseases as Milk Fever, 
Louping-Ill, Rickets, and Osteo-Porosis, all of which are diffi- 
cult to c'ass on account of our -ignorance of their pathology. 



Milk Fever 

Milk fever, or parturient apoplexy, attacks cows immedi- 
ately before or a few hours after parturition. The symptoms 
are those of coma, and are probably produced by bacterial 
toxines absorbed from the uterus. There are no post- 
mortem signs which are pathognomonic of milk fever. 
There may be congestion of the meninges, but this is present 
in other pathological conditions, such as the so-called stomach 
staggers, and poisoning by lead. The affected animal, being 
comatosed, is unable to rise. If she has been down for a day 
or two before slaughter, the tissues upon which she has been 
resting most of her weight will be oedematous and sometimes 
infiltrated with blood. This is well seen in the neighbourhood 
of the sternum and hips. The skin _^ over these parts may 
even be necrosed (bed-sores). 

Inspection. — So fatal is milk fever in some localities that 
the owner may elect to slaughter the animal on the first onset 
of the disease, in order that there may be a better chance of 
getting the carcase accepted. 

It is seldom that cases of this kind come to the abattoir 
from city byres, for it is not customary for dairymen to keep 

270 



UNCLASSED DISEASES 271 

pregnant animals. Most cases are sent in from tlie country 
as dressed carcases. If the animal lias been slaughtered early- 
little or no change is observable in the flesh. No harm is 
likely to result from passing it. Indeed, it is often allowed 
into the market with the full knowledge of the inspector. 
In the later stages of the disease the animal does not bleed 
well. This shows itself by a fulness of the blood vessels, blood 
streaks in the tissues, and a general dark red appearance of 
the flesh. Moreover, as stated above, the regions on which 
the animal has lain are often damaged. Carcases of the 
latter description should be regarded as unmarketable, 
whether the cause of the condition has been milk fever, 
lead poisoning, or stomach staggers, all of w^hich may give 
rise to such changes. 



Louping-Ill 

This is a disease wdiich is seen in sheei? in certain parts 
of Scotland. It is most prevalent in the late spring. The 
disease is characterised by nervous symptoms. Very little is 
known about its pathology ; but MTadyean has shown that 
several different conditions, such as an abscess in a vertebra 
and purulent meningitis, account for some of the so-called 
cases of louping-ill. 

According to Williams and Greig Smith, it is a bacterial 
disease inoculated by ticks ; but no bacterium has yet been 
isolated, which, from its action on animals, can claim to be called 
the microbe of louping-ill. 

In what are generally said to be typical cases of the disease, 
no important lesions are found in the internal organs, with 
the exception of the spinal cord. The meninges are con- 
gested, and a reddish fluid or coagulum is found around the 
cord. As the animals become paralysed and unable to move 
about in search of food, they become emaciated. Abscesses 
may be present under the skin or in the superficial muscles. 



2 72 MEAT INSPECTION 

Inspection.— The flesli of animals killed at the outset of 
the disease may be of good enough quality. 

After paralysis has set in it is emaciated, flabby, and oedema- 
tous. It should not in the latter circumstances be passed by 
the inspector. 

ElCKETS 

The chief anatomical changes in rickets are located in 
the bones, but it is regarded as a constitutional disease. It 
is only seen in young animals. Those of the abattoir, with 
the exception of the pig, rarely suffer from it. 

In what might be termed the acute stages, the bones are 
softer and more vascular than normal. The long bones are 
bent and their epiphyses are often swollen. Microscopical 
sections show that there is some disturbance in the region 
of the ossifying centres. The osteoblasts under the periosteum 
are increased in number, and calcification is proceeding irre- 
gularly in the cartilage of growth. 

Inspection. — Animals during an attack of rickets are 
generally in poor condition. They are sometimes cachectic, 
and their flesh has a watery or anaemic appearance. The 
fate of the carcase should depend on the condition of the 
flesh. 

OSTEO-POEOSIS 

Osteo-porosis is an exceedingly rare disease in this country, 
but it seems to be met with more frequently in other parts of 
the Empire. Several specimens have, been sent to the Dick 
College from India. The disease is seen mainly in horses, 
but it has also been described in oxen. 

Its pathology is practically unknoAvn ; but it seems to be 
a systemic affection, although the bones are the seat of the 
chief anatomical changes. 

The bones of the jaws are most frequently affected. They 
are swollen and brittle. The teeth become loosened. When 



UNCLASSED DISEASES 273 

tlie bones are boiled they have a worm-eaten appearance. 
Their tissue is markedly rarefied. ^ 

Inspection.— Tho, subjects of osteo-porosis are usually so 
cachectic and emaciated as to be unfit for the market. 

^ Osteo-malacia is the term given to anotlier disease in whicli the principal 
clianges are fonnd in the bones. We are as ignorant of its true nature as 
we are of that of osteo-porosis. In osteo-malacia the bones seem to become 
decalcifigr]. They can be bent in all directions, and can sometimes be cut with 
a knife. 



FOOD POISONING IN MAN 

Food may prove infective or poisonous to human beings in 
different ways : (1) As the carrier of pathogenic organisms, 
which a;'e thus introduced into the body ; (2) as containing 
poisonous alkaloids and toxalbumins produced by bacteria ; 
(3) as containing the intermediate forms of certain parasites '; 
and (4) the flesh of certain fish and shell-fish is naturally 
poisonous owing to the presence of toxic secretions or 
alkaloids, 

I. Certain of the well-recognised infective diseases, such as 
tubercle, glanders, anthrax, and pneumonia, may be contracted 
from eating food infected with their specific organisms ; while 
milk contaminated with the germs responsible for scarlet 
fever, enteric fever, summer diarrhoea, etc., has frequently 
been shown to cause those diseases in man. 

The flesh of animals which have died of puerperal fever 
or of other diseases the pathogenic organisms of which may 
be quite unknown, has also occasionally given rise to epidemic 
outbreaks in man— the illness often running a course exactly 
like that of the specific fevers. *In some of these cases 
an organism has been isolated, and on inoculation has 
proved fatal to other animals, but frequently none has been 
detected. 

Food after being dressed or cooked may become accident- 
ally infected in the same way, usually by being kept in foul 
cupboards or cellars. In the outhreak of pneumonia at 
Middlesbrough (1888), which was infectious from person to 



FOOD POISONING IN MAN 275 

person, but the origin of whioli was traced to some American 
bacon, it seems to have been proved tliat the contamination 
occurred accidentally during the process of preparing the meat 
for sale. Klein isolated from the bacon a hitherto undescribed 
organism (bacillus pneumonice), which infected animals, and 
was present in the lungs and blood of the human victims of 
the epidemic. 

Tlj£ digestive processes in the stomach and duodenum 
probably destroy many bacteria introduced in the food, while 
thorough cooking is still more potent in preventing such in- 
fection. The danger lies specially in eating raw or imperfectly 
cooked food, or food which has been kept for some time after 
cooking. 

These cases, which are most properly classed as food 
infection, since they are due to micro - organisms, show an 
incubation period, and otherwise resemble the specific fevers 
in their symptoms and course. 

II. Food of all kinds which has been infected by putre- 
factive and other organisms, and the flesh or milk of diseased 
animals, may contain poisonous ptomains or albumoses (tox- 
albumins, toxins). These poisons may be secreted directly by 
the bacteria, or may be bodies formed under their influence 
from the breaking up of proteids. Their poisonous action is 
manifested shortly after ingestion, as no incubation period is 
necessary. 

All kinds of food— ham, pork, sausages, tongue, beef, veal, 
pies, fish, canned meats, sardines, milk, cheese, custards, etc., 
have given rise to this kind of poisoning. Food which was 
originally innocuous may become poisonous, and may later 
on again become harmless owing to the further decomposition 
of the poisonous products. Development of the poison depends 
not only on the particular micro-organisms present, but on 
the accompanying circumstances which may be favourable 
or unfavourable to their chemical and biological activity. 
Thus the temperature or the supply of oxygen may be all- 



2 7 6 ME A T INSPE CTION 

important. In canned foods, anoerobic organisms may flourish 
well and produce toxins, while the same microbes would prove 
harmless in food freely exposed to the air. The early stages 
of decomposition, before there is any putrefactive odour or 
appearance, are often the most dangerous, as the poisonous 
albumoses seem to be an early product, and to break down later 
into harmless substances. 

Heat, as applied in cooking, may destroy the toxin, and 
render it harmless or lessen its activity ; but this is not always 
the case. 

Ptomains (Gr. ptoma, a dead body) are bases of the nature of 
alkaloids Avhich are formed in putrefying proteid matter, or in 
diseased living animals, by the action of bacteria. They were first 
described by Selmi of Bologna in 1872, although they had been 
previously stumbled upon by earlier investigators. Gautier (1881) 
and Brieger (1883) made elaborate researches regarding their chemical 
constitution, and the latter described two under the names cadaverin 
and putrescin, besides showing that the previously known bodies 
cholin, neurin, sepsin, mydalein, and others belonged to this class of 
substances. In 1885, Yaughan isolated tyrotoxicon from poisonous 
cheese, and since then these bodies have been recognised as the 
products of the activity of micro-organisms. The discovery of 
tetanin, tetanotoxin, typhotoxin, etc., soon followed, while poisonous 
alkaloids were isolated from the urine in cases of diphtheria, erysipelas, 
etc. 

Chemically they are mostly bodies of comparatively simple con- 
stitution, closely allied to ammonia and its immediate derivatives, sucli 
as the amines. Some of them are harmless, others have a feeble 
toxic action, while others again are very poisonous. The last usually 
cause general depression of the nervous and circulatory systems, 
gastro-intestinal disturbances, and coma. Some of them have actions 
like the natural alkaloids, such as muscarin or atropin. 

ToxALBUMiNS. ToxiNS. PoisoNOus Albumoses. — These are albu- 
minous substances of unknown chemical constitution which are present 
in some plants, in snake and other animal poisons, and which can be 
manufactured by bacteria, or produced by the decomposition of 
albumin. 

In 1883, Weir Mitchell and Reichert first separated such an 
albuminous poison from the venom of the rattle-snake, and since then 
diphtheria-toxin, tetanus-toxin, and many others have been obtained 
by growing specific organisms in suitable culture media. 



FOOD POISONING IN MAN 277 

The best-known toxins of vegetable origin are ricin, obtained 
from the castor-oil seed, and abrin, from jequirity seeds. All these 
substances are energetic poisons to the elements of nerve-tissue, 
muscle, and blood. Man and other animals become immune or 
tolerant to most of them when given in gradually increasing doses 
for long periods, and the effects of many of them can be obviated or 
antagonised by properly prepared antitoxins. 

Symptoms. — Dr. Ballard, in summarising an account of 
fourteen epidemics of food-poisoning and food-infection, states 
that the symjDtoms are nearly always the same, differing 
chiefly in their severity.^ In the Middlesbrough epidemic, 
already referred to, jDneumonia was j)resent ; but, as a rule, 
the gastro-intestinal tract is the most prominently afTected 
part. Sometimes there is an incubation period ranging from 
a few hours to a few days, and sometimes the symptoms super- 
vene almost immediately after eating. 

When several persons are attacked tliey are all taken ill 
about the same time, the onset being usually sudden. Faint- 
ness, prostration, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting, and 
diarrhoea are the early symptoms. These may be followed 
or accompanied by severe thirst, fever, cardiac depression, 
twitching of muscles, disturbance of vision, skin eruptions, 
suppression of urine, and nervous collapse. Death may occur 
in a few hours or after a few days, usually in coma but 
sometimes in convulsions, either from exhaustion or from 
the specific effects of the toxins on the heai't or nervous 
system. 

Cases vary greatly in seveiity. In some, headache and mild 
diarrhoea point to a feeble dose of the poison ; wdiile between 
this and a fatal termination we meet with all grades, the most 
dangerous symptoms being, of course, absent in the slighter 
cases. Convalescence may be rapid or prolonged. On post- 
mortem, inflammation and haemorrhages are present in the 
stomach and bowels ; the lungs and other viscera are often 
hypersemic, and necrosed in small patches. The kidneys may 
1 Beport Med. Officer Local Gov. Board, 1890, p. 189. 



2 78 . MEAT INSPECTION 

Idg acutely inflamed. Sometimes a. culture of the jDeccant 
organism may be obtained, or it may be detected by means 
of the microscoiDe. When the poisoning is due to ptomains 
or toxins only, no organism is present. 

Treatment. — If the case be seen in the early stage, and vomit- 
ing and purging are present without being very severe and 
exhausting, the former may be encouraged by giving hot water 
to drink, and the latter by washing out the contents of the 
bowel with hot water enemata ; or castor-oil with a few drops 
of laudanum in it, or four grains of calomel, may be given. 
If there be great exhaustion from the diarrhoea, it may be 
necessary to give opium (alone or with small doses of atropin) 
to control it somewhat. 

Alcoholic stimulants, ammonia, or spirit of camphor 
should be given at frequent intervals to maintain the circula- 
tion. Severe collapse should be treated with hot-water bottles, 
small doses of strychnine, and general stimulation. The treat- 
ment in every case must be sjmiptomatic, and must be directed 
by the immediate individual circumstances. 

The food should be bland and unirritating, and given 
frequently, and in small quantities at a time. 

In some cases of Meat-poisoning, and often in Fish- 
poisoning, the symptoms closely resemble those caused by 
large doses of atropin or belladonna, and the poisonous 
alkaloid causing them has therefore been named ptomatropin. 
The chief effects in man are dryness and constriction in the 
throat, vomiting, vertigo, wide dilatation of the pupils, weak 
rapid pulse, and wandering delirium, which may pass into 
coma and death. The symptoms yary greatly, however, in 
individual cases. Treatment is symptomatic chiefly. These 
cases are often fatal. 

Cheese poisoning.— In 1883-84 numerous cases of cheese 
poisoning occurred in the State of Michigan. On investigation 
the cheese pi-esented no special peculiaiities cither in smell or 
taste, but on pressure it exuded numerous drops of an opal- 
escent fluid, which contained micrococci. 



FOOD POISONING IN MAN 279 

Tlie cheese was extracted witli acidulated water, caustic 
soda was added to give an alkaline reaction, and tlie whole 
shaken up with ether. The ether was separated and evapor- 
ated ill vacuo, when needle-shaped crystals of an alkaloid 
appeared, which was named tyrotoxicon by Vaughan, its 
discoverer. He has also found it in spoiled milk, and in 
poisonous dishes made with milk. It may be present only 
in a smah part of the cheese, the remainder being harmless, 
and it*is a product of bacterial activity. 

The symptoms caused in man by cheese containing tyro- 
toxicon are as follows :— There is a feeling of constriction in 
the fauces, nausea and vomiting, with retraction of the 
abdominal wall, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea. This is accom- 
panied by great general depression. In very severe cases 
there is extreme collapse, without vomiting or plugging, and 
the muscular wall of the intestine may be so firmly con- 
tracted that seve:re constipation ensues, and enemata cannot be 
administered. Death takes place in coma. 

Treatment should be directed to washing out the stomach 
and bowel, and- stimulation must be resorted to in order to 
maintain the circulation. The administration of atropin and 
of amyl nitrite has been suggested for relief of the intestinal 
spasm. Opiates should be given if necessary. 

Milk sickness.— This is an affection seen in certain parts 
of the United States, but apparently only in recently-settled 
places, and disappearing when the land has become thoroughly 
cultivated. The cows seem to suffer from an infective disease 
of which trembling is a prominent symptom, while their milk, 
and butter and cheese made from it, as well as their flesh, are 
all poisonous to human beings. The symptoms produced are 
lassitude, headache, nausea, vomiting, colic, and constipation. 
The respiration is laboiu^ed, there is no tenderness of the 
abdomen on pressure, and no fever. Death may take place 
from prostration. As it is an infective disease the indications 
are to maintain the strength, and treat symptoms as they 
arise. 



28o MEAT INSPECTION 

III. Flesli may contain the cysticerci of tape-worms, and 
thus give rise to intestinal parasites. Tape-worms often give 
rise to no very definite symptoms in man, and are usnally 
diagnosed by segments being passed per rectmn. * Occasionally 
they cause malnutrition, reflex disturbances, digestive dis- 
orders, or ansemia. The treatment is to give one drachm of 
liquid extract of male-fern, in capsule or as an emulsion, 
preceded and followed by small doses of castor-oil. 

Trichiniasis has been a recognised disease in man since 
1860. Its clinical symptoms are divisible into three stages, 
corresponding to different stages in the behaviour of the 
parasites. There is first of all the stage of intestinal irritation, 
commencing a few hours after swallowing the diseased pork, 
and cori-esponding to the growth and sexual activity of the 
trichinae, and to the emigration of their progeny. This may 
cause vomiting, diarrhoea, pain, and severe gastro-intestinal 
catarrh, or may result in almost no symptom's. 

About the ninth or tenth day pain and stiffness are felt 
in the muscles, which are found to be hard, painful, swollen, 
and tender to the touch. The temperature goes up to 102° 
or 103°, and various muscular movements become difficult 
or impossible. These symptoms result from the immature 
trichinge encysting themselves in the muscles and causing 
local irritation and constitutional disturbances. Subcutan- 
eous oedema, profuse perspirations, emaciation, and lowered 
vitality follow, with stupor or delii'ium. Death often happens 
at this stage from prostration, pneumonia, or oedema of the 
lungs; but if not, convalescence generally sets in about the 
fifth or sixth week, when the myositis subsides, and the para- 
sites become completely encysted, this constituting the third 
stage. 

Treatment must be directed to expelling the parent trichinae 
from the bowel, as the embryos cannot be acted on when in 
the muscles. Purgatives in large doses should be given daily 
for at least three weeks after infection has occurred. The 
ordinary anthelmintics are valueless. When the disease is 



FOOD POISONING IN MAN 281 

fully developed the only treatment possible is to maintain 
the patient's strength. 

IV. Poisonous fish are not of practical importance in this 
country. The poison is either secreted, like that of snakes, 
for purposes of offence and defence, or the flesh may become 
poisonous from cei'tain small invertebrates on which the fish 
habitually feed. Mussels sometimes contain a poison which 
produces symjotoms resembling those of cholera. 

Brieger has isolated from poisonous mussels an alkaloid 
which he named mytilotoxin, and which causes great depres- 
sion of the whole nervous system. Skin eruptions are often 
caused by eating shell-fish. Here again treatment must be 
guided by the symptoms in individual cases. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



BOOKS AND PAPEES CONSULTED^ 

MM. NocARD ET Leclainche. — " Les maladies microbiennes des animanx," 

2nd edition. 
Friedberger and Frohner. — " Pathologie et tlierapeutique des animaux 

domestiques," Fr. trans, by MM. Cadiot et Eies. 
Nocard. — " Les tuberculoses animales," Paris. 
Neumann. — "Parasites of the Domesticated Animals," trans, by Dr. 

Fleming. 
Leuckart. — "The Parasites of Man," trans, by Hoyle, 1886. 
OsTERTAG. — " Handbuch der Fleischbeschau," 1899. 



Ascarides 

MoROT. — "Odour anormale de la viande attribuee a la presence de 
nombreux ascarides dans I'intestin grele d'un veau de lait," Eec. 
de med., Paris, 30th Aug. 1898 and 30th Dec. 1898. 



Aspergillosis 

LiNifeRES ET Petit. — "Peritonite aspergillaire des dindons," Bee. de 

med. vet., Paris, 15th March 1898. 
LuCET. — " Sur I'aspergillus fumigatus," Rec. de. med. vet., 30th June 1894. 
LucET. — "Etude experimentale et clinique sur I'aspergillus fumigatus," 

Rec. deme'd. vet., 30th Aug. 1896. 
Thary ET LucET. — " Mycose aspergillaire chez le cheval," Rec. de med. 

vet., 15th June 1895. 
Redon. — " Sur I'infection produite par I'aspergillus fumigatus," Rec. de med. 

vet., 15th March 1896. 
Redon. — "Etude sur I'aspergillose chez les animaux et chez I'homme," 

Monograph, 1897. 

1 The Editor regrets that, owing to a hurried departure for South Africa, he has 
been unable to prepare a complete list of books and papers consulted. It will be 
found, however, that the names of most of the authors quoted are mentioned in 
the text. 

283 



284 BIBLIOGRAPHY 



Bacterial Pseudotuberculosis 

Cherry and Bull. — " Pseudotuberculosis in Sheep," Veterinarian, Aug. 

1899. 
Departmental Reports, Melbourne, 1899. 



Bladder Worms 

MoROT. — "Ladrerie et pseudoladrerie musculaire cliez le mouton," Eec. 

de med. vet., 30th Dec. 1899. 
MoROT. — " Cysticerques des parois stomachales chez un pore ladre," Rec. 

de med. vet., 30th Dec. 1899. 
Mo-ROT.—" Bull. Soc. Gent, de med. vet., 1895, pp. 73, 578. 
Megnin. — "Muscular Echinococcosis," Gompt. rend. Soc. de la Biol., 1881, 

p. 105. 
Rose. — "On the Vesicular Entozoa, and particularly Hydatids," London 

med. Gazette, 9th Nov. 1833. 

Braxy 

Cowan and Borthwick. — " On Braxy in Sheep," High, and Agric. Soc. 

Reports, July 1861. 
Duncan. — " Summary of Prize Essays," High, and Agric. Soc. Reports, 1803. 
Hogg. — " Essay on the Disease of Sheep called Sickness or Braxy," Edin. 

Vet. Revieiv and Ann. of Gomp. Path., vi. 1864. 
Jensen. — "Braxy, its Causes and Prevention," Trans, in Veterinarian, 

Sept. 1896. 

Cattle Plague 

Carr^ et Fraimbault. — " Note sur la contagiosite de la peste bovine au 

pore," Ann. de I'Inst. Pasteur., Dec. 1898. 
Verney. — " The Rinderpest in S. Africa," Journ. Gomp. Path, and Therap., 

June 1897. 
Walley. — "Four Bovine Scourges." 
Gamgee. — " Cattle Plague." 

Diphtheria 

Galli-Valerio. — " L'etat actuel de la question sur I'identite de la 

diphtherie de I'homme et des oiseaux," Gentralbl. /. BaUeriol., xxii. 

1897, 
Gratia et Lienaux. — Ann. de me'd. vet., Aug. 1898. 
Gallez. — "Diphtherie Animale," Ann. de med. vet., June, July, and Aug 

1895. 
Loir et Ducloux. — " Contribution a I'etude de la diphtherie aviaire en 

Tunisie," Ann. de I'Inst. Pasteur, 1894, p. 559. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 285 



Disseminated Necrosis 

Hamilton. — "Necrosis of the Liver," Joimi. Gorth'p. Path, and Therap., 

June 1891. 
M'Fadyean. — " Disseminated Necrosis in tlie Livers of Oxen and Slieep, 

Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap.^ Dec. 1891. 

DiSTOMATOSIS 

GoMY.— ^' La douve pancreatique," Rec. de me'd. vet., 30th July 1897. 
GoMY. — " Sur la presence d'une douve hepatique dans le coeur droit 

d'une vache," Rec. de me'd. vet., July 1897. 
Stockman.—" The Structure and Origin of Cavernous Angiomata in the 

Livers of Oxen," Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap., 1896. 

Fatigue Poisons 

BouLET. — Bull, de VAcad. roy. de me'd., 24th Sept. 1878. 

Gulliver.—" On the State of the Blood and Muscles of Animals killed 

by Hunting and by Fighting," Edin. Med. and Surg. Journal, 

1848. 
FouRNOL. — " Contribution a I'etude du surmenage," Monogr., Pans, 

1879. 
Pleindoux. — " Note relative aux viandes d'animaux tues dans I'arene au 

point de vue de la consommation," Journ. de me'd. vet. et zootech., Lyon, 

Aug. 1898. 
Redon. — Ann. de me'd. vet., Aug. 1895. 



Foot and Mouth Disease 

FoRTUNA. — "La decouverte du bacille de la fievre aphteuse" (Discus- 
sion), Rec. de me'd. vet., 1896. 
Report of Royal Commission on Foot and Mouth Disease, 1866. 

Glanders 

Bourges et Mery.— "Sur le sero- diagnostic de la morve," Gompt. rend. 

Sac. de biol, 5th Feb. 1898. 
M'Fadyean,— " The Pulmonary Lesions of Glanders," Jour7i. Comp 

Path, and Theraf., March 1895. 
M'Fadyean.— " Preliminary Note on the Sero-Diagnosis of Glanders," 

Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap., Dec. 1896. 
NocARD.— " Sur la mallein " (Kidney Lesions of Glanders), Rec. de me'd. 

vet., 1894. 
NocARD.— " Morve aigue avec lesions du rein et sans lesions pulmonares," 

Rec. de mM. vet., 1897. 



286 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ScHUTZ. — "A Contribution to the Subject of Glanders," Trans., Joum. 

Govip. Path, and Therap., March 1868. 
Stockman. — "The Pathological Effects of Dead Glanders Bacilli on 

Animals," Journ. Gotnp. Path, and Therap., June 1897 (Parasite. 

Lesions in Lungs). 
Pedchu. — "Sur la morve du mouton," Soc. de bioL, March 1889. 
Wladimiroff. — " Sur le phenomene d' agglutination dans la morve," Ecc. 

de med. vet., 1897 

Horse-Flesh Test 

Humbert. — "Sur un procede chimique jDour reconnaitre la A'iande de 

cheval," Rec. de med. vet., 30th Dec. 1894. 
CouRTOT ET CoREMANS. — " Procede chimique pour reconnaitre la viande 

de cheval," Rec. de ine'd. vet., 15th Jan. 1896. 
Trotter. ^ — ■" On Niebel's Method of Detecting Horse-Flesh ; Journ. Comp. 

Path, and Therap. 

Leukaemia 
Kaupp. — " Leukaemia," Journ. Comp. me'd., and Vet. arch., June 1899. 



Malignant Catarrh 

Edgar. — "So-called Malignant Catarrh," Veterinarian, Jan. 1897. 
Leclainche. — " Etude experimental du coryza gangreneuse," Rev. vet., 
1898, p. 69. 

Malignant CEdema 

Menereul. — " Gangrene gazeuse produit par le vibrion septique," 
Ann. de VInst. Pasteur, 1895. 



Pigmentation 

Morot. — "Un cas remarquable d« pigmentation melanique chez un 

veau," Rec. de med. vet., 30th Dec. 1896. 
Morot. — " Infiltration de divers tissus chez un agneau," Rec. de me'd. vet., 

30th Dec. 1899. 

Psorospermosis 

M'Fadyean. — " Intestinal Psorospermosis in Lambs," Joihrn. Comp. 

Path, and Therap., March 1896. 
Gair. — " Psorospermosis of the Intestines in Cattle," /own. Comp. Path. 

and Therap., June 1898. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 287 



Rabies 

Decroix. — Uec. de vied, vet., 30fch Marcli 1898. 

NocARD ET Roux. — "A quel moment le virus rabique apparuit et dans 
la bave des animaux enrage," Ann. de I' Inst. Pasteur, 1890. 



RllS'GWORM 

Megni«c. — " Sur une variete de la teigne faveuse a forme lycoperdoid 

cbez le lapin a fourrure," Soc. de biol., 1882. 
Megnin. — " Difference specifique entre le champignon de la teigne des 

poules et celui de la teigne faveuse, demon tree par la culture," Soc. 

de Biol, 1890. 
Neumann.—" Identite du favus des poules et du favus d'homme, Soc 

de Biol, 1886. 
Neumann. — " Sur le favus des poules," Soc. de biol, 1886. 



Sarcocysts 

Beale. — " Tlie Microscope in Medicine," London, 1878. 

Beaunis. — "Sur la signification hygienique des gregarines" (Linde- 

mann), Gaz. vied., Paris, 1868. 
CoBBOLD.— X«nce^, 1866, p. 88. 
CoBBOLD. — "Remarks on Spurious Entozoa found in Diseased and 

Healthy Cattle," Trans. Bath. Soc, 1866, vol. xvii. p. 452. 



Strychnine in Meat 

Lewin. — "Recherches experimentales sur le tetanos du a I'ingestion de 
viande des poules empoisonnees par la strychnine," Revue par 
Kaufmann, Eec. de vie'd. vet., July 1896. 



Swine Erysipelas 

Jensen. — " Die Aetiologie des Nesselfiebers . . . des Schweines," Deufsc/ie 

Ztschr.f. Thiermed., xviii. 1892. 
Rabe. — "Ueber Infectionskrankheiten der Schweine," Berl thiercortzl 

Wchnschr., 1895. 
M'Fadyean. — Journ. Gomp. Path, and Theraf., 1891. 
Murray and Stephenson. — " Swine Erysipelas," Journ. Comp. Path. 

and Tlierap., March 1892. 
Annual Report of the Board of Agriculture (The Diseases of Animals 

Act), 1896. 
Second Report of the Departmental Committee appointed by the Board of 

Agriculture to inquire into Swine Fever, 1897. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



Swine Fever 



PouCHET. — " Intoxication par la viande cle pore avarice," /S'oc. de, Med. 

legale, 8tli Feb. 1897. 
M'Fadyban. — " Swine Fever," Journ. Gomp. Path, and Thera2}., Dec. 

1895, June 1896, March 1897, June 1897. 
Report of the Board of Agriculture (The Diseases of Animals Act), 1896. 

Trichinosis 

CHATiN.—"Sur la presence de la trichine dans le tissu adipeux," Compt. 

rend. Acad. d. sc. 1881. 
Chatin. — " La trichine et la trichinose," Monogr., Paris, 1883. 
Colin. — "Sur les trichines et la trichinose," 5ttW. de VAcad. roy. de me'd., 

5th Feb. 1884. 
FouRMENT. — " Sur la vitalite des trichines dans les viandes ralees," Compt. 

rend. Acad. d. sc, xciv. 1882. 
Laboulbene. — " Relation sur la primiere epidemie de trichinose constatee 

en France," Bull, de VAcad. de me'd., 15th Feb. 1881. 
Proust. — Bull, de VAcad. roy. de. me'd., 1884 (Discussion, 5th Feb.). 
Vallin. — Bull, de VAcad. de me'd., 1881, j). 264. 
Zenker. — "Note sur I'infection trichinaire chez I'homme," Compt. rend. 

Acad. d. sc, 16th Feb. 1863. 

Tuberculosis 

Colin. — " Transmission de la tuberculoses aux grand ruminants," Compt. 
rend. Acad. d. sc. 1885. 

Gilbert, Cadiot, et Roger. — "Contribution a I'etude de la tuberculose 
aviaire," Congre's de la Tuberculose, 1891. 

Gilbert, Cadiot, et Roger. — " Inoculation aux gallinaces de la tuber- 
culose des mammiferes," Memoirs de la Soc. de hiol., 1891. 

Gilbert, Cadiot, et Roger. — " Inoculation de la tuberculose des 
gallinaces aux mammiferes," Compt. rend. Soc de hiol., 1896. 

Gilbert, Cadiot, et Roger. — -"Unicite des tuberculoses humaine et 
aviaire," Compt. rend. Soc de hiol., 1896. 

Kaestner. — "Ein Weiterer Beitrag," Miinchen. med. Wchnschr., 1892. 

Leclainche. — " La virulence des viandes tuberculenses," Rev. de la 
tuberculose, 1894. " 

Leclainche. — "Tuberculose aviaire," Rev. de la tuhercxdose, 1896. 

MoREAU. — " Prophylaxie de la tuberculose d'origin alimentaire," Paris, 
1894. 

M'Fadyean. — "Tuberculous Mastitis in Cows," Journ. Comp. Path, and 
Therap., 1889. 

M'Fadyean. — " The Virulence of the Blood and Muscles in Tuber- 
culosis," Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap., March 1892. 

M'Fadyean. — "The Infectivity of the Blood and Muscular Tissue and 
Lymphatic Glands in Generalised Tuberculosis of the Ox," Journ. 
Comp. Path, and Therap., Dec. 1898. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 289 

NocARD. — " Sur les relations qui existent entre la tuberculo3e 

liixmaine et tuberculose aviaire," Ann. de Vlnst. Pasteur, Sept. 1898. 
NoCARD. — " Les tuberculoses animales," Paris, 
Report of Royal Goramission on Tuberculosis, 1898. 

Stockman. — "Tuberculosis of Muscle in tlie Pig," Veterin., Marcli 1896. 
Stockman — "Pathological Effects of Dead Tubercle and Glanders 

Bacilli on Animals," Journ. Covip. Path, and Therap., June 1897. 
Straus et Wurtz. — " De Taction du sue gastrique sur le bacille de la 

tuberculose," Gomp. rend. Congres de la tuberculose, 1888. 
Straus et Gamaleia. — " La tuberculose humaine, sa distinction de la 

tutjerculose des oiseaux," Arch, de me'd. expe'r., 1891. 



19 



INDEX 



Abattoiks, 19. 

Abscess (see Suppuration), 122, 124. 

Acai'iasis, 255. 

Actinomycosis, 111 ; parasite of, 111 ; 

lesions of, 112 ; of the various 

organs, 112-115 ; inspection in the 

case of, 115. 
Adenoma, 53. 
Age of carcases, 23. 
Albumoses, 63, 276. 
Alterations in flesh produced by 

drugs, 57. 
Aniphistoma conicum, 232. 
Amjdoid disease, 48. 
Anaamia, 73 ; due to ttenise, 224 ; due 

to nematodes, 233. 
Animal parasites, diseases caused by, 

186. 
Anthrax, 165; animals affected by, 165; 

microbe of, 165 ; lesions of, 166, 167 ; 

inspection in the case of, 167, 168. 
Apoplexy (splenic), 165. 
Arachnids^, 255. 
Ascarides, 245 ; inspection of animals 

harbouring, 245, 246 ; perforation 

of the bowel by, 233. 
Aspergillosis, 140 ; animals aff'ected 

by, 140 ; Asjjergillus fumigatus, 

140 ; lesions of, 141 ; inspection in 

the case of, 141. 

Bacterial diseases, 79. 

,, necrosis, 142. 

,, pseudo-tuberculosis, 108. 

Balbianise, 190. 
Bile, pigmentation b)', 46. 
Bilharzia hovis, 230; lesions of, 231 ; 
inspection in the case of, 232. 



Black quarter, 171 ; animals affected 

by, 171 ; microbe of, 171 ; lesions 

of, 171, 172 ; inspection in case of, 

172, 173. 
Blood, diseases of the, 73 ; prohibition 

against use of, 6. 
Blown veal, 22. 
Botryomycosis, 131 ; animals aff'ected 

by, 131 ; lesions of, 131 ; inspection 

in the case of, 172, 173. 
Bots, 261 ; lesions caused by, 262 ; 

inspection in the case of, 232. 
Braxy, 173 ; animals aff'ected by, 

174 ; lesions of, 174 ; microbe of, 

174 ; inspection in the case of, 174, 

175. 

Cachexia, 224. 

Calcification, 45. 

Calves, diphtheria of, 139 ; diarrhcea 
in, 181. 

Carcases, differences referable to species, 
sex and age, 23 - 32 ; of bovine 
animals, 22 ; of goats, 25 ; of horse, 
25 ; of sheep, 25. 

Carceag, 188. 

Carcinoma, 53. 

Catarrh, see Malignant, of the ox and 
sheep. 

Cattle Plague, 161 ; animals aff'ected 
by, 161 ; lesions of, 161, 162 ; in- 
spection in the case of, 162. 

Cestodes, 196. 

Cheese poisoning, 279. 

Chemical agents in the preservation of 
flesh, 23. 

Cholera of hogs, 145 ; of fowls, 179. 

Cirrhosis of liver, see Distomatosis. 



291 



292 



INDEX 



Coccidiosis, 192 ; animals affected by, 
192, 193 ; parasites of, 193 ; lesions 
of, 194-196 ; inspection in the case 
of, 196. 
Ccenurus cerebralis, 220, 221 ; animals 
affected by, 220 ; lesions 
of, 221-223 ; inspection in 
case of, 223. 
,, serialis, 223. 
Contagions Plenro-pneumonia of cattle, 
153 ; microbe of, 153 ; 
lesions of, 153 ; resem- 
blance of, to septic pneu- 
monia, 155. 
,," Pneumonia of SAvine, 152 ; 

microbe of, 152 ; lesions 
of, 152 ; inspection in 
the case of, 153. 
Cow-pox, see Variola. 
Cumberland disease, seo Anthrax. 
Cysticercus bovis, 198. 
,, cellulosm, 200. 

,, cereh7'aUs, 221,222; animals 

affected by, 221 ; lesions 
of, 221, 223 ; inspection 
in the case of, 223. 
,, 2^'^^if'^^'i^i'i^y 213 ; inspection 
in the case of, 213, 
214. 
,, tenuicoUis, 210 ; animals 

affected by, 210 ; lesions 
of, 211 ; inspection in 
the case of, 213, 

Degeneration, 47. 
Demodex folliculoruvi, 258. 
Dermatomycosis, 182. 
Development of meat inspection, 1-13. 
Diarrhcea due to tEenire, 224 ; due to 
nematodes, 233. 
,, of young animals, 181 ; 

animals affected bj^, 181 ; 
inspection in the case of, 
182. 
Dicrocolliuon pancreaticum, 226. 
Diphtheria, 138 ; in human beings and 
animals, 138 ; of birds, 138 ; of 
fowls due to grcgarincB, 139 ; of 
calves, 139, 142 ; microbes of, 138, 
139 ; lesions of, 138, 140 ; inspection 
in the case of, 139, 140. 
Discoloration, jjost-^nortem, 46. 
Diseases, bacterial, 79 ; due to animal 
parasites, 187 ; unclassed, 270 ; 
characterised by suppuration, 122. 



Distoma JimmatoMum, 231. 
,, hepaticum, 225. 
,, lanceolatum, 225. 
Distomatosis, 224 ; animals affected by, 
224 ; parasites of, 224-225 ; lesions 
of, 225, 230 ; inspection in the case 
of, 230. 

Ecliinococeus multilocularis, 216 ; sco- 
lices of, 217 ; lesions 
caused by, 217-220 ; 
inspection in the case 
of, 220. 
,, racemosics, 216. 

,, veterinorum, 214 ; animals 

affected by, 214. 
Ecliinorliynchus gigas, 246 ; lesions 
caused by, 247 ; inspection in case 
of, 247. 
Eczema ejiizootica, 156. 
Endocarditis, 70. 
Erysipelas of swine, 149. 
Eustrongylus gigas, 249. 

Fat, infiltration by, 44 ; influence of 

food on, 60. 
Fatigue, 56. 
Fatty degeneration, 48. 
Favus, 184 ; parasite of, 184 ; lesions 

of, 184, 185. 
Fever, flesh in, 53 ; malignant catarrhal, 

163 ; splenic, 165 ; Texas, 186. 
Fish poisoning, 281, 
Flesh of horse, 27 ; tests for, 28, 29. 
,, of young animals,' effects of 

eating, 27. 
,, recognition of, in the different 
sexes and sj^ecies, 26-32 ; 
odour sui generis in, 26, 30, 
31. 
,, in fever, 53. 
Fluke disease, 224. 
Food, influence of, on flesh, 60. 

,, poisoning in man, 274 ; symp- 
toms of, 277 ; treatment of, 
278. 
Foot and mouth disease, 156 ; animals 
affected by, 156 ; lesions of, 156 ; 
inspection in the case of, 157. 
Fowl cholera, 179 ; birds affected by, 
179 ; microbe of, 179 ; lesions 
of, 180 ; inspection in the 
case of, 180, 181. 
,, diphtheria of, due to gregarince-, 
139. 



INDEX 



293 



Gangrene, see necrosis ; traumatic, 

168. 
General pathological conditions, 44-61. 
Gid, 221. 
Glanders, 116 ; animals aflfected by, 

116 ; microbe of, 116 ; lesions of, 

117 ; Widal reaction with the serum 
from cases of, 121 ; inspection in the 
case of, 121. 

Grouse disease, 179. 

Hce'jiiatoidin, pigmentation by, 45. 

Heart oTox and horse, 30. 

Hog cholera, 145. 

Hoose, 249 ; parasites of, 249-250 ; 

lesions of, 250-255 ; inspection in 

the case of, 255. 
Horse pox, 159. 
Hypodcrma ho vis, 261. 
Hydrophobia, see Rabies. 

Infiltrations, 44-49 ; by fat, 44 ; 
by pigment, 45-46. 

Inflammatory diseases, 67 ; inspection 
in the case of, 71. 

Inspection of abattoirs, 19 ; methods 
of, 19 ; of living animals, 19 ; of 
dead animals, 20, 21 ; of chilled 
meat, 22 ; of frozen meat, 22 ; of 
salted or pickled meat, 22 ; of flesh 
preserved by chemical agents, 23 ; 
of flesh from animals suffering from 
diseased conditions, see sections on 
the various diseases ; by microscopic 
examination, 32. 

Insects, 255. 

Izodidse, 265 ; lesions caused b}^, 265 ; 
inspection in the case of, 266. 

Joint-ill, 128. 

Kidneys of ox, sheep, horse, and pig, 
30. 

Larv^ of distomata in muscle, 242. 

Leucocythfemia, 74 ; animals affected 
by, 74 ; lesions of, 74-76 ; inspec- 
tion in the case of, 76. 

Lipoma, 49. 

Liver, of ox, horse, and sheep, 30 ; 
necrosis in, 143. 

Lockjaw, see Tetanus. 

Loodiana disease, 165. 

Louping 111, 271 ; inspection in the 
case of, 272. 



Lousiness, 263 ; inspection in the case 

of, 265. 
Lupinosis, 228. 
Lutein, pigmentation by, 45. 

Maggots, inspection in the case of, 263. 
Malignant catarrh of the ox, 163 ; mi- 
crobes of, 163 ; 
lesions of, 163, 
• 164 ; inspection 
in the case of, 164. 
,, ,, of sheep, 164, 165. 

,, cedenia, 168. 
,, parturient fever in ewes, see 

Septic Metritis. 
,, pustule, see Anthrax. 
Mammitis, 132 ; animals alfected by, 
132 ; microbes of, 132 ; gangrenous, 
132; lesions of, 132-134; tuber- 
culous, 99 ; inspection in the case 
of, 134. 
Mange, 255 ; animals affected by, 256 ; 
parasites of, 256-258 ; search for 
the parasites of, 258 ; lesions of, 259- 
261 ; inspection in the case of, 261. 
Measles, 197 ; animals affected by, 
197 ; parasites of, 197, 
201 ; infection of animals 
and human beings by, 
201 ; statistics of, 202 ; 
lesions of, 204-207 ; effects 
of cooking and pickling 
on parasites of, 208 ; in- 
spection in the case of, 
207-210. 
,, of sheep, 197, 213. 
Melanin, pigmentation by, 45. 
Metritis, septic, 135 ; animals affected 
by, 135 ; lesions of, 135 ; microbes 
of, 135 ; serous membranes in cases 
of, 136 ; lung complications of, 137 ; 
inspection in the case of, 137. 
Microscopic examinations, methods, 
freezing, fixing, section cutting, 
hardening, teasing, imbedding, 
mounting cover-glass preparations, 
staining, decalci fying reagents, 32-43. 
Milk fever, 270 ; inspection in the case 
of, 270, 271. 
,, sickness, 279. 
Mouldy flesh, 66. 
Murrain, 171. 

Muscle, tuberculosis of, 101 ; juice 
experiments on animals, 104, 105 ; 
distomata in, 230. 



294 



INDEX 



Kagana disease, 188. 

Navel-Ill, 128 ; animals affected by, 
129 ; lesions of, 129. 

Necrosis, 49. 

,, bacterial, 142 ; animals af- 
fected by, 142 ; microbes 
of, 143 ; lesions of, 143 ; 
of liver, 142-145 ; inspec- 
tion in the case of, 145. 

Nematodes, 232. • 

Neoplasms, 49-53. 

Nephritis, 70. 

Odour, of species and sex, 26 ; of flesh 
in choked animals, 55 ; due to drugs, 
58 ; due to ascarides, 245. 

(Edema, malignant, 168 ; animals af- 
fected by, 169 ; microbe of, 169 ; 
lesions of, 169 ; inspection in the 
case of, 169 ; bacillus of, in the 
intestines, 65, 169. 

CEsojihagastoma columhianum, 247 ; 
lesions caused by, 247, 248 ; inspec- 
tion in the case of, 249. 

Oestnis ovis, 261. 

Organs, difference referable to species, 
29, 30. 

Osteitis, 71. 

Osteo-malacia, 273. 

Osteo-porosis, 272 ; inspection in the 
case of, 273. 

Parasites, diseases caused by animal, 
186. 

Parturient fever in ewes, 135. 

Pcntastoma denticulatum, 266 ; 
animals affected by, 266 ; lesions 
caused by, 267 ; inspection in the 
case of, 268. 

Pericarditis, 69 ; epizootic of turkey s, 1 79. 

Peritonitis, 69. 

Physic, effects of, on flesh, 58. 

Phosphorescent meat, 65. 

Pigment, infiltration by, 45. 

Plague, see Cattle Plague and Con- 
tagious Pneumonia of Swine. 

Pleurisy, 68. 

Pneumonia, 68 ; contagious, of SAvine, 
152 ; contagious pleuro-, 153 ; septic, 
155 {see Septic Metritis) ; in swine 
fever, 148 ; parasitic, 249. 

Pneumo-pericarditis of turkeys, 179. 

Poisoning, by arsenic, carbolic acid, 
creasote, irritants, lead, phosphorus, 
strychnine, 58-60. 



Poisons, bacterial, 63 ; ptomaines, 63, 
276 ; effects of cooking on, 64 ; in 
food, 274. 

Post-mortem, discoloration, 46 ; changes 
in flesh, 62. 

Pox, 159. 

Protozoa, 186. 

Pseudoleukeemia, 74. 

Pseudotuberculosis, bacterial, 108 ; 
animals affected with, 108 ; microbes 
of, 110 ; lesions of, 110 ; inspection 
in the case of, 110. 

Psoroptes, 257. 

Psoros])ermim, 188-192. 

Pthiriasis, 263. 

Ptomaines, 63, 276. 

Putrefaction, 63. 

Pycemia, 124 ; umbilical, 128. 

Pyo-pericardium, 123. 

Pyo-thorax, 123. 

Quaetee III, 171. 

Rabies, 177 ; animals affected by, 

177 ; lesions of, 177, 178 ; inspection 

in the case of, 173. 
Rainey's corpuscles, 190, 242. 
Red braxy, 173. 

,, water, 77. 
Rickets, 272 ; inspection in the case 

of, 272. 
Rinderpest, see Cattle Plague. 
Ringworm, 182 ; inspection in case of, 

185. 
Rot, sec Distomatosis. 
Rouget du 2^orc, 149. 
Rupture of cesophagus, 55. 

Saecocystis, 189. 

Sarcoma, 51. 

Sarcoptes, 256. 

Sarcosporidise, 188 ; animals affected 

by, 189; lesions caused by, 191; 

inspection in the case of, 192. 
Scab in sheep, 255. 
Schwcineseuche, 152. 
Scolices, seeEchinococcus, Ccenurus, and 

Cysticercus. ■ 
Scour, see Diarrhosa. 
Septic pneumonia, see Sepjtic Metritis. 
Sheep pox, sec Variola. 
Slink veal, 26. 
Statutory provisions in regard to the 

duties of Meat Inspectors, 14-18 ; 

for England and Wales, 14 ; for 



INDEX 



295 



London, 14, 15 ; for Ireland, 14 ; 
for Scotland, 16, 17 ; penalties, 17, 
18 ; sale of horse flesh, 18 ; qualifi- 
cations of Inspectors, 16, 18, 32. 
• Sterilisation of knives, 22. 
Strangles, 129 ; streptococcus of, 129. 
Striking, 171. 
Strongylus cervicornis, 224. 
Strongylus ntfcscens, filaria, ^^ara- 

doxus, 249, 250. 
Sturdy, 221. 
Suffocatiop, 56. 

Suppuration, diseases characterised 
by, 122 ; animals affected by, 122 ; 
the microbes of, 122 ; lesions of, 
12.3 ; blood stream infection in, 123 ; 
in the organs, 124-128 ; inspection 
in the case of, 129. 
Surra, 188. 

Swine, contagious pneumonia of, 152. 
,, Erysipelas, 149 ; the microbe 
of, 150 ; lesions of, 150 
relations of urticaria to, 150 
inspection in the case of, 151 
cardiac lesions of, 151. 
,, fever, 145 ; animals affected, 
145 ; the microbe of, 146 ; 
lesions of, 146-148 ; lung com- 
plications of, 148 ; inspection 
in the ease of, 149 ; applica- 
tion of Contagious Diseases of 
Animals Act to, 149. 
,, plague, 152. 
Symbiotes, 257. 

T^Ni^ ccemorus, see Sturdy. 
,, denticulata, 228. 

effects of, 224. 
,, expansa, 223. 
,, marginata, see Cysticercus 

tenuicollis. 
,, saginata, see Measles. 
,, serialis, see Cysticercus seri- 

alis. 
,, serrata, see Cysticercus pisi- 

formis. 
,, solium, see Measles. 
Tetanus, 175 ; animals affected by, 
175 ; microbe of, 175, 176 ; lesions 
of, 176 ; inspection in the case of, 
176. 
Texas fever, 182 ; animals affected by, 
186 ; parasite of, 186, 187 ; lesions 



of, 187 ; inspection in the case of, 
188. 

Ticks, 265. 

Tinea tonsurans,' 1%2 ; lesions of, 183, 
184. 

Tongue, tuberculosis of, 102 ; of horse 
and ox, 29. 

Toxalbumins, 276. 

Traumatic, see Wounds ; pericarditis, 
125 ; gangrene, 168. 

Trematodes, 224. 

Trichinosis, 233 ; animals affected by 
and frequency of, 233-236 ; parasite 
of, 236 ; Cumberland outlDreak of, 
236-238 ; infection of animals and 
human beings with, 236-238 ; 
lesions of, 239-242 ; effects of cook- 
ing, salting, and smoking on flesh 
affected with, 242-244 ; inspection in 
the case of, 242-245 ; in man, 280. 

TryjpanosoDUt evansi, 188. 

Tse-tse fly disease, 188. 

Tuberculosis, 79 ; animals affected 
with, 80 ; statistics of, from abat- 
toirs, 82 ; relative frequency of, 
in the various organs, 83 ; bacillus 
of, 84 ; indentity of, in man and 
animals, 84-86 ; lesions of, 86 ; 
differential diagnosis of, 89 ; paths 
of infection in, 90 ; of the various 
organs, 93-103 ; danger arising from 
ingestion of meat from cases of, 103 ; 
inspection in the case of, 105 ; re- 
commendations of the Royal Com- 
mission on, 107 ; in tripe, 108 ; 
sterilisation of knives used in cases 
of, 108 ; generalisation of, 91 ; signs 
of generalisation of, 106 ; in muscle, 
101. 

Unclassed diseases, 270. 

Urticaria, 77 ; lesions of, 78 ; inspec- 
tion in the case of, 78 ; relation 
of, to swine erysipelas, 150. 

Variola, 159 ; animals affected with, 
159 ;lesionsof,159; inspec- 
tion in the case of, 160. 
,, ovina, 160. 

Veal, blown, 22 ; sour, 27. 

Warbles, 261. 

Wool sorters' disease, see Anthrax, 



WILLIAM R. JENKINS' 

Veterinary Books 

1901 



(*) Single asterisk designates New Books. 
(**) Double asterisk designates Recent Publications. 



ANDEMSOy. "Vice in the Horso" and other papers 
on Horses and Elding. By E. L. Anderson. Demy, 
8vo, cloth 2 00 



— " How to Ride and School a Horse." With a System 
of Horse Gymnastics. By Edward L. Anderson. 
Or. 8vo 1 00 



ARM STEAD. "The Artistic Anatomy of the Horse." 

A brief description of the various Anatomical Struc- 
tures which maybe distinguished during Life through 
the Skin, By Hugh W. Armstead, M.D., F.K.C.S. 
With illustrations from drawings by the author. 
Cloth oblong, 12| x 10 3 75 



BACH. "How to Judge a Horse." A concise treatise 
as to its Qualities and Soundness ; Including Bits and 
Bitting, Saddles and Saddling, Stable Drainage, Driv- 
ing One Horse, a Pair, Four-in-hand, or Tandem, etc. 
By Captain F. W. Bach. 12mo, cloth, fully Illustrated, 
$1 00; paper 50 



Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins 



{*)BANnAM. *' Anatomical and Physiological Model of 
the Horse." Half life size. Composed of super- 
posed plates, colored to nature, showing Internal 
organs, muscles, skeleton, etc., mounted on strong 
boards, with explanatory text. By George A. 
Banham, F.K.C.V.S. Size of Model 38x41 in... 10 00 

— "Tables of Veterinary Posology and Therapeutics," with 
weights, measures, etc. By George A. Banham, 
F.K.C.V.S. 12mo, cloth 100 

BAUCHER. "Method of Horsemanship." Including 
the Breaking and Training of Horses 1 00 

{*)BELL. "The Veterinarian's CaU Book (Perpetual)." 

By Eoseoe R. Bell, D.V.S., editor of the ■ American 
Veterinary Review. Revised for 1901, 

A visiting list, that can be commenced at any time 
and used until full, containing much useful informa- 
tion for the student and the busy practitioner. 
Among contents are items concerning : Veterinary 
Drugs ; Poisons ; Solubility of Drugs ; Composition of 
Milk, Bile, Blood, Gastric Juice, Urine, Saliva ; Respi- 
ration; Dentition; Temperature, etc., etc. Bound in 
flexible leather, with flap and pocket 1 25 

(**)BRADLBY. "Outlines of Veterinary Anatomy." 

By O. Charnock Bradley, Member of the Royal Col- 
lege of Veterinary Surgeons ; Professor of Anatomy 
in the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. 

The author presents the most important facts of 
veterinary anatomy in as condensed a form as possible, 
consistent with lucidity. 12mo. 

Complete in three parts. 

Pabt I. : The, Limbs (cloth) 1 25 

Pakt II. : The Trunk (paper) 1 25 

Part III. : The Head and JSfecJc (paper) 1 25 

The Set complete 3 50 



851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 4Sth St.), New York. 



CADIOT, "Roaring in Horses." Its Pathology and 
Treatment. This work represents the latest develop- 
ment in operative methods for the alleviation 
of roaring. Each step is most clearly defined by 
excellent full-page illustrations. By P. J. Cadiot, 
Professor at the Veterinary School, Alfort. Trans. 
Thos. J. Watt Dollar, M.E.C.V.S., etc. Cloth 75 

m 

— " Exercises in Eqnine Surgery." By P. J. Cadiot. 
Translated by Prof. A. W. Bitting, M.D.,V.S. ; edited 
by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.V.S. Bvo, cloth, illus- 
trated 2 50 

(•)—*' A Treatise on Veterinany Tlierapeutics of tlie Domestic 
Animals." By P.J. Cadiot and J. Alvary. Translated 
by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.,V.S. 2 Parts ready. 

Part I, Vol. I, 8vo, 93 pages, 45 illustrations 1 00 

Part II, Vol., I, 8vo, 96 pages 1 CO 

{Part III, in Preparation) . 



{*)CHAPMAN. "Manual of tlie Pathological Treatment 
of Lameness in the Horse," treated solely by 
mechanical means. By George T. Chapman. Svo, 
cloth, 124 pages 2 00 



CHAUVEAU. "The Comparative Anatomy of the 
Domesticated Animals." By A. Chauveau. New 
edition, translated, enlarged and entirely revised by 
George Fleming, F.E.C.V.S. Svo. cloth with 585 
Illustrations , 6 25 



CLARKE. "Chart of the Feet and Teeth of Fossil 
Horses." By W. H. Clarke 25 



Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins 



CLiEMENT. *' Yeterinary Post Mortem Examina- 
tions." By A. W, Clement, V.S. Records of 
autopsies, to be of any value, should accurately 
represent the appearances of the tissues and organs 
so that a diagnosis might be made by the reader were 
not the examiners' conclusions stated. To make the 
pathological conditions clear to the reader, some 
definite system of dissection is necessary. The 
absence in the English language, of any guide in 
making autopsies upon the lower animals, Induced 
Dr. Clement to write this book, trusting that it 
would prove of practical value to the profession. 
12mo, cloth, illustrated , 75 



CLEAVELAND, "Pronouncing Medical Lexicon." 

Pocket edition. Cloth 75 



COUMTENAT. "Manual of Veterinary Medicine and 
Surgery." By Edward Courtenay, V. S. Crown, 8vo, 
cloth 2 75 



COX. " Horses : In Accident and Disease." The 

sketches introduced embrace various attitudes which 
have been observed, such as in choking; the disorders 
and accidents occurring to the stomach and intestines ; 
affection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame- 
ness, etc. By J. Roalfe Cox, F.R.CV.S. 8vo, cloth, 
fully illustrated . . .' 1 50 



CURTIS. "Horses, Cattle, Slieep and Swine." The 

origin, history, Improvement, description,charaeteris- 
tics, merits, objections, etc. By Geo. W. Curtis, 
M.S.A. Superbly illustrated. Cloth, $2 00; half 
sheep, $2.75 ; half morocco ..,,,.. 3 §0 



8hl-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 4Sth St.), New York. 



DDALBYMrLE. "Veterinary Obstetrics." A compen- 
dium for the use of advanced students and Practi- 
tioners. By W. H. Dalrymple, M. K. C. V. S., 
principal of the Department of Veterinary Science in 
the Louisiana State University and A. & M. College; 
Veterinarian to the Louisiana State Bureau of 
• Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Stations; 
Member of the United States Veterinary Medical 
Associations, etc. 8vo, cloth, illus 2 50 

DALZIEL, " The Fox Terrier." Illustrated. (Monographs 
on British Dogs) . By Hugh Dalziel 1 00 

— " The St. Bernard." Illustrated ' 1 00 

— "The Diseases of Dogs." Their Pathology, Diagnosis 

and Treatment, with a dictionary of Canine Materia 
Medica. By Hugh Dalziel. 12mo, cloth 80 

— "Diseases of Horses." 12mo, cloth 100 

— " Breaking and Training Dogs." Being concise 

directions for the proper education of dogs, both 
for the field and for companions. Second edi- 
tion, revised and enlarged. Part I, by Pathfinder: 
Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. 12mo, cloth, illus ....2 60 

— "Tlie Collie." Its History, Points, and Breeding. By 

Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth 1 00 

— "The Greyhound." 8vo, cloth, illus 1 00 

DANA. "Tables in Comparative Physiology." By Prof. 
C. L. Dana, M.D 25 

DANCE. "Veterinary Tablet." Folded in cloth case. 
The tablet of A. A. Dance is a synopsis of the diseases 
of horses, cattle and dogs, with the causes, symptoms 
and cures 75 

DAY. "The Race-horse in Training." By Wm. Day, 
8vo 3 50 



Veterinary Oatatogue of WilUam it. Jenkins 



{*)DE BB UIN. " Bovine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin, 

Instructor of Obstetrics at the State Veterinary 
School in Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, 
Professor of Veterinary Science at Clemson A. & M. 
College, and Veterinarian to the South Carolina 
Experiment Station. 
8vo, cloth, 382 pages, 77 illustrations 5 00 

Synopsis of the Essential Features of Work. 

1. Authorized translation. 

2. The only obstetrical work which is up to date. 

3. Written by Europe's leading authority on the 

subject. 

4. Written by a man who has practiced the art a 

lifetime. 

5. Written by a man who, on account of his eminence 

as bovine practitioner and teacher of obstetrics, 
was selected by Prof. Dr. Frohner and Prof. Dr. 
Bayer (Berlin and Vienna), to discuss bovine 
obstetrics, both practically and scientifically. 

6. The only work containing a thorough differential 

diagnosis of ante and post partum diseases. 

7. The only work doing justice to modern obstetrical 

surgery and therapeutics. 

8. Written by a man whose practical suggestions 

revolutionized the teaching of veterinary obste- 
trics even in the great schools of Europe. 

9. The only work dealing fully with the now no 

longer obscui'e contagious and infectious dis- 
eases of calves. 

10. Absolutely original and no compilation. 

11. The only work dealing fully with the difficult 

problem of teaching obstetrics in the colleges. 

12. The only work where the practical part is not 

overshadowed by theory. 
See also " Wyman." 



851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 4:6th St.), New York. 



ODOLLAB. "A Surgical Operating Table for the 
Horse." By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.E.C.V.S 90 

(*J— "Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery," By John 
A. W. Dollar, M.E.C.V.S 5 25 

* ... This work, containing as it does the ripe exper- 

ience of the author, who may be considered one of the 
foremost surgeons and clinicians of the day, contains a 
vast amount of exact scientiflc information of the utmost 
value to the busy workaday practitioner, while for the 
student of either human or comparative medicine, no 
better book could be placed in their hands, that will give 
them a clear insight into the many intricate problems 
with which they are daily confronted. . . .—American 
Veterinary Review, New York, August, 1901. 

(*)— "A Hand-book of Horse-Shoeing," with introductory 
chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the 
horse's foot. By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.E.C.V.S., 
translator and editor of MoUer's " Veterinary Sur-' 
gery," "An Atlas of Veterinary Surgical Operations," 
etc. ; with the collaboration of Albert Wheatley, 
F.E.C.V.S. 8vo, cloth, 433 pp., 406 illustrations . .4.75 



DUN, " Veterinary Medicines." By Finlay Dun, V.S. New 
revised and enlarged English edition. 8vo, cloth. 3 75 

DWTER. ''Seats and Saddles." Bits and Bitting, 
Draught and Harness and the Prevention and Cure of 
Eestiveness in Horses. By Francis Dwyer. Illus- 
trated. 1 vol., 12mo, cloth, gilt 1 50 

FLEMING. " Veterinary Obstetrics." Including the 
Accidents and Diseases incident to Pregnancy, Parturi- 
tion, and the early Age in Domesticated Animals. 
By Geo. Fleming, F.E.C.V.S. With 212 illustrations. 
New edition revised, 226 illustrations, 758 pages. ..6 25 
773 pages, 8vo, cloth (old editiou) 3 50 



Veterinary Catalogue of Wittiam R. Jenkins 



FLEMING. "Operatiye Veterinary Surgery." Part I, by 
Dr. Geo. Fleming, M.R.O.V.S. This valuable work, 
the most practical treatise yet issued on the 
subject in the English language, is devoted to the 
common operations of Veterinary Surgery; and the 
concise descriptions and directions of the text are illus- 
trated with numerous wood engravings. 8vo,cloth.2 75 
Second volume in preparation. 

— "Tuberculosis." From a Sanitary and Pathological Point 

of View. By Geo. Fleming, F. E.G. V.S 25 

— " The Contagious Diseases of Animals." Their influence on 

the wealth and health of nations. 12mo, paper 25 

— "Human and Animal Variolae." A Study in Comparative 

Pathology. Paper 25 

-^ "Animal Plagues." Their History, Nature, and 
Prevention. By George Fleming, F. K. C. V. S., etc. 
First Series. 8vo, cloth, $6.00; Second Series. 
8vo, cloth 3 00 

— " Roaring in Horses." By Dr. George Fleming, 

F. E.G. V.S. A treatise on this peculiar disorder 
of the Horse, indicating its method of treatment 
and curability. Svo, cloth, with col. plates . , 1 50 

FLEMING-NEUMANN, "Parasites and Parasitic 
Diseases of the Domesticated Animals." A work 
which the studenfs of human or veterinary medi- 
, cine, the sanitarian, agriculturist or breeder or rearer 
of animals, may refer for full information regarding 
the external and internal Parasites — vegetable and 
animal — which attack various species of Domestic 
Animals. A Treatise by L, G. Neumann, Professor 
at the National Veterinary School of Toulouse. 
Translated and edited by George Fleming, G. B., L.L. 
D.,F.E.G.V.S. 873 pages, 365 illustrations, cloth.7 50 



8&1-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 4Sth St.), New York 9 



GUESS WELL. "The Diseases and Disorders of the 
Ox." By George Gresswell, B.A. With Notes by 
James B. Gresswell. Crown, 8vo, cloth, illus 3 50 

— " Diseases and Disorders of the Horse." By Albert, James 

B. and George Gresswell. Crown, Svo, illus., cloth. 1 75 

— " Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics." By 

James B. Gresswell, F.E.C.V.S. 16mo, cloth . . .1 50 

— " The Bovine Prescriber." For the use of Veterina- 

rians and Veterinary Students. By James B. and 
Albert Gresswell, M.E.O.V.S Cloth .75 

— "The Equine Hospital Prescriber." For the use of Veter- 

inary Practitioners and Students. By Drs. James 
B. and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth 75 

— "Veterinary Pliarmacopaeia, Materia Medica and 

Therapeutics." By George and Charles Gresswell, 
with descriptions and physiological actions of medi- 
cines. By Albert Gresswell. Crown, Svo, cloth.. 2 75 

— Manual of "The Theory and Practice of Equine Medicine." 

By James B. Gresswell, F.K.C.V.S., and Albert 
Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S., second edition, enlarged, 
Svo, cloth 2 75 

GOTTHEIL, "A Manual of General Histology." 

By Wm. S. Gottheil, M.D., Professor of Pathology in 
the American Veterinary College, New York; etc., etc. 
Histology is the basis of the physician's art, as 
Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon's science. 
Only by knowing the processes of life can we under- 
stand the changes of disease and the action of remedies ; 
as the architect must know his building materials, so 
must the practitioner of medicine know the intimate 
structure of the body. To present this knowledge in 
an accessible and simple form has been the author's 
task. 8vo.> cloth, 118 pages, fully illustrated. . . 1 00 



io Veterinary Oataiogue of \^^itliam it. Jenkins 



UASSLOCH. " A Compend of Veterinary Materia Medica 
and Tlierapeutics." By Dr. A. C. Hassloch, y,S., 
Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, and 
Professor of Veterinary Dentistry at the New Yorli 
College of Veterinary Surgeons and School of Compa- 
rative Medicine, N. Y, 12mo, cloth, 285 pages . . 1 50 



HEATLEr. " The Stock Owner's Guide." A handy Medi- 
cal Treatise for every man who owns an ox or cow. 
By George S. Heatley, M.E.C.V. 12mo, cloth... 1 25 

— "The Horse Owner's Safeguard," A handy Medical 

Guide for every Horse Owner. 12mo, cloth 1 50 

— "Practical Veterinary Remedies." 12mo, cloth 1 00 



HILL. "The Management and Diseases of the Dog." 

Containing full instructions for Breeding, Rearing and 
, Kenneling Dogs. Their Different Diseases. How to 
detect and how to cure them. Their Medicines, and 
the doses in which they can be safely administered. 
By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. 12mo, cloth, extra 
fully illustrated 2 00 

(*)- "The Diseases of the Cat." By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.E. 
C. V.S. 12mo, cloth, illustrated i 25 

Written from the experience of many years' prac- 
tice and close pathological research into the maladies 
to which our domes^/icated feline friends are liable — a 
subject which it must be admitted has not found not 
prominence in veterinary literature to which it is 
undoubtedly entitled. 

HINEBAUCH. "Veterinary Dental Surgery." For the 

use of Students, Practitioners and Stoclimen. 

12mo, cloth, illustrated 2 00 

Sheep 2 76 



851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. iSth St.), New JTorfc. 11 



HO ABE. "A. Manual of Teterinary Therapeutics and 
Pharmacology." By E. Wallis Hoare, F.E.C.V.S. 
12ino, cloth, 560 pages 2 75 

"Deserves a good place in the libraries of all veterina- 
rians. * ♦ • Cannot help but be of the greatest assist- 
ance to the young veterinarian and the every day busy 
• practitioner."— American Vetei-inary Beview. 



{*)HOBDAT. " Canine and Feline Surgery." By Frederick 
T. G. Hobday, F.E.C.V.S., Professor in Charge of the 
Free Out-Patients* Clinique at the Royal Veterinary 
College, London, The 'work contains 76 illustrations 
in the text. Demy 8vo, 152 pp., full-bound cloth .2 00 



{*') HUN TING. Tlie Art of Horse-shoeing. A manual 
for Farriers. By William Hunting, F.R.C.V.S., edi- 
tor of the Veterinary Record, ex-president of the Royal 
College of Veterinary Surgeons. 8vo, cloth, with 
nearly 100 illustrations 1 GO 



{*)JENKINS, " Model of the Horse." 10 00 

(See Banham). 



( ')KOBERT, "Practical Toxicology for Physicians and 
Students." By Professor Dr. Rudolph Kobert, 
Medical Director of Dr. Brehmer's Sanitarium for 
Pulmonary Diseases at Goerbersderf in Silesia (Prus- 
sia), late Director of the Pharmacological Institute, 
Dorpat, Russia. Translated and edited by L. H. 
Friedburg, Ph.D. Authorized Edition. 8vo, cloth.2 50 



KOCH. "Jltiology of Tuherculosis." By Dr. R. Koch. 
Translated by T. Saure. 8vo, cloth 1 00 



12 Veterinary Catalogue of William it. Jenkins 



KEATING. "A New Unabridged Pronouncing Diction- 
ary of Medicine." By John M. Keating, M.D., LL.D., 
Henry Hamilton and others. A voluminous and 
exhaustive hand-book of Medical and scientific 
terminology with Phonetic Pronunciation, Accentu- 
ation, Etymology, etc. With an appendix containing 
important tables of Bacilli, Microcci Leucomaines, 
Ptomaines ; Drugs and Materials used in Antiseptic 
Surgery ; Poisons and their antidotes ; Weights and 
Measures; Themometer Scales; New Officinal and 
UnofiBcinal Drugs, etc., etc. 8vo, 818 pages 5 00 

LAMBBBT. "Tlie Germ Theory of Disease." 

Bearing upon the health and welfare of man and the 
domesticated animals. By James Lambert, F.R.C.V.S. 
8vo. paper 25 



LAW, "Farmers' Teterinary Adviser." A Guide to the 
Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic 
Animals. By Prof. James Law. Illus., 8vo, cloth. 8 00 



(*-)LEGGE, "Cattle Tuberculosis." A Practical Guide 
to the Farmer, Butcher and Meat Inspector. By T.M. 
Legge, M.A., M.D., D.P.H., Secretary of the Koyal 
Commission on Tuberculosis, 1896-98 ; author of 
" Public Health in European Capitals," and " Harold 
Sessions, F.E.C. V.S." Cloth 1 GO 



LI A UTABD, " Manual of Operative Veterinary Surgery " 

By A. Liautard, M. D., V.M,, Principal and Professor 
of Anatomy, Surgery, Sanitary Medicine and Juris- 
prudence in the American Veterinary College; 
Chevalier du Merite Agricole de France, Honorary 
Fellow of the Koyal College of Veterinary Surgeons 
(London), etc., etc. 8vo, cloth, 786 pages and nearly 
600 illustrations 6 00 



851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 4Sth St.), New York. 13 



LIAUTARD. "Median Neurotomy in the Treatment of 
Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." 

By C. Pellerin, late Repetitor of Clinic and Surgery to 
the Alfort Veterinary School. Translated with addi- 
tional facts relating to it, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D., 
V.M. 
m Having rendered good results when performed by 

himself, the author believes the operation, which 
consists in dividing the cubito-plantar nerve and in 
excising a portion of the peripherical end, the means 
of improving the conditions, and consequently the 
values of many apparently doomed animals. Agricul- 
ture in particular will be benefited. 

The work is divided into two parts. The first covers 
the study of Median Neurotomy itself ; the second, 
the exact relations of the facts as observed by the 
author. 8vo., boards 1 00 

— *'Animal Castration," A concise and practical Treatise 

on the Castration of the Domestic Animals. The 
only work on the subject in the English language. 
Illustrated with forty-four cuts. 12mo, cloth... 2 00 

— "Vade Mecnm of Equine Anatomy/' By A. Liautard, 

M.D.V.S. Dean of the American Veterinary College. 
12mo. cloth. New edition, with illustrations 2 00 

— " Translation of Zundel on the Horse's Foot." Cloth . . 2 00 

— " How to Tell the Age of the Domestic Animal." Bj 

Dr. A. Liautard, M.D., V.S. Profusely illustrated. 
12mo, cloth 50 

— "On the Lameness of Horses." By A. Liautard, 

M.D.,V.S. 2 50 

See also ^'CadioVs Surgery.^'' 

(*)_" A Treatise on Veterinary Therapeutics of the Domestic 
Animals," (See Cfidiot,) 



14 Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins 



LONG. «'Book of the Pig." Its selection, Breeding, 
Feeding and Management. 8vo, cloth 4 25 

{**)LOWE. "Breeding Bacehorses by the Figure 
System." Compiled by the late C. Bruce Lowe. 
Edited by William Allison, " The Special Commis- 
sioner," London jSporteman, Hon. Secretary Sporting 
League, and Manager of the International Horse 
Agency and Exchange. With numerous fine illustra- 
tions of celebrated horses. Quarto, cloth 7 50 

LUDLOW. " Science in the Stable "; or How a Horse can 
be Kept in Perfect Health and be Used Without 
Shoes, in Harness or under the Saddle. With the 
Reason Why, Second American Edition. Enlarged 
and Exemplified. By Jacob E. Ludlow, M.D. Late 
Staff Surgeon, U. S. Army. Paper, 166 pages 50 

LUPTON. "Horses: Sound and Unsound," with 
Law relating to Sales and Warranty. By J. Irvine 
Lupton, F.R.C.V.S. 8vo, cloth, illustrated. .... .1 25 

— *' The Horse." As he Was, as he Is, and as he Ought to Be. 
By J. I. Lupton, F.K.C.V.S. Illus., Crown, 8vo. .1 40 

MAGNER. " Facts for Horse Owners." By D. Magner. 
Upwards of 1,000 pages, illustrated with 900 engrav- 
ings. Bvo, leather binding 7 50 

MAYHEW. "The Illustrated Horse Doctor." An 

accurate and detailed account of the Various Diseases 
to which the Equine Race is subject ; together with the 
latest mode of Treatment, and all the Requisite Pre- 
scriptions written in plain English. By E. Edward 
Mayhew, M.R.C.V.S. Illustrated. Entirely new 
edition, 8vo, cloth , 2 75 



851-853 Sixth Avenue {cor. ASth St.), New York. 15 



McBBIDE. "Anatomical Outlines of the Horse." 

12mo, cloth. Reduced to 1 50 

McCOMBIE. "Cattle and Cattle Breeders." Cloth 1 00 

miFADTEAm "Anatomy of the Horse." A Dis- 
section Guide. By J. M. M'Fadyean, M.R.C.V.S. 

8vo, cloth 5 50 

This book is intended for Veterinary students, and 
offers to them in its 48 full-page colored plates numer- 
ous other engravings and excellent text, the most 
valuable and practical aid in the study of Veterinary 
Anatomy, especially in the dissecting room. 

— " Comparatiye Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals." 

By J. M'Fadyean. Profusely illustrated, and to be 
issued in two parts. 

Part I — Osteology, ready. Paper, 2.50; cloth 2.75 

(Part II in preparation.) 



MILLS. "How to Keep a Dog^ in the City." By 

Wesley Mills, M.D., V.S. It tells how to choose, 
manage, house, feed, educate the pup, how to keep him 
clean and teach him cleanliness. Paper 25 



MOSSELMAN-LIENAUX. "Veterinary Microbio- 
logy." By Professors Mosselman and Lienaux, 
Nat. Veterinary College, Cureghem, Belgium. Trans- 
lated and edited by E. E. Dinw^iddie, Professor of 
Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Arkansas 
State University. 12mo, cloth, 342 pages 2 00 



MORETON, " On Horse-breaking," 12mo, cl 50 



16 Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins 



MOLLiER, "Operative Veterinary Surgery." By Profes- 
sor Dr. H. MoUer, Berlin. Translated and edited 
from the 2ad edition, enlarged and improved, by 
John A. W. Dollar, M.E.G.S. 

Prof. MoUer's work presents the most recent and 
complete exposition of the Principles and Practice of 
Veterinary Surgery, and is the standard text-book on the 
subject throughout Germany. 

Many subjects ignored in previous treatises on 
Veterinary Surgery here receive full consideration, 
while the better known are presented under new and 
suggestive aspects. 

As Prof. MoUer's work represents not only his 
own opinions and practice, but those of the best 
Veterinary Surgeons of various countries, the trans- 
lation cannot fail to be of signal service to American 
and British Veterinarians and to Students of Veter- 
inary and Comparative Surgery. 
1 vol., 8vo. 722 pages, 142 illustrations 5 25 

NOCARD. ♦' The Animal Tuberculoses, and their Relation 
to Human Tuberculosis." By Ed, Nocard, Prof, of the 
Alfort Veterinary College. Translated by H. Scurfield, 
M.D. Ed., Ph. Camb. 12mo, cloth, U3 pages. . . .1 00 
Perhaps the chief interest to doctors of human 
medicine in Professor Nocard's book lies in the 
demonstration of the small part played by heredity, 
and the great part played by contagion in the propa- 
gation of bovine tuberculosis. It seems not unreason- 
able to suppose that the same is the case for human 
tuberculosis, and that, if the children of tuberculosis 
parents were protected from infection by cohabitation 
or ingestion, the importance of heredity as a cause of 
the disease, or even of the predisposition to it, would 
dwindle away into insignificance. 

PEQLER, «*The Book of the Goat," 12mo, cloth I 75 



851-853 Sixth Avenue {cor. 4Sth St.), New York. 17 



PBLJLEBIN, "Median Neurotomy in the Treatment 
of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." 

By C. Pellerin, late repetitor of Clinic and Surgery to 
tlie Alfort Veterinary School. Translated, with Addi- 
tional Facts Eelaling to It, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D., 

V, M. 8 vo, boards, illustrated ... 1 00 

See also " Liautard." 



PETERS. " A Tuberculous Herd-Test with Tuber- 
culin." By Austin Peters, M. E. C. V. S., Chief 
Inspector of Cattle for the New York State Board of 
Health during the winter of 1892-93. Pamphlet 25 



OPFEIFFEB - WILLIAMS. " A Course of Surgical 
Operations for Tcterinary Students and Practi- 
tioners." By W. Pfeiffer, Assistant in the Surgical 
Clinic of the Veterinary High School in Berlin, and 
W, L. Williams, V.S., Professor of Surgery in the 
New York State Veterinary College, Cornell Univer- 
sity, Ithaca, N. Y. 
"With 42 illustrations, 12mo, cloth 1 25 

A concise description of the more common major 
surgical operations, designed as a laboratory guide in 
surgical exercises for veterinary students and as a 
ready reference for practitioners in surgical opera- 
tions. Based upon a translation of Dr. Pfeiffer's 
«' Operations-Cursus," embodying the experience of 
Dr. Pfeiffer and Prof. Dr. Frohner in the Berlin 
Veterinary School. With numerous annotations there 
have been added many of the newer, largely distinc- 
tively American, operations. 



REYNOLD. "Breeding and Management of Draught 
Horses," 8vo, cloth 1 40 



18 Veterinary Catalogue of WilUavi R. Jenkins 



ROBERGE. "The Foot of the Horse," or Lameness 
and all Diseases of the Feet traced to an Unbalanced 
Foot Bone, prevented or cured by balancing the foot. 
By David Koberge. 8vo, cloth 5 00 



{**)SEWEIj1j. " The Examination of Horses as to Sound- 
ness and Selection as to Purchase." By Edward 
Sewell, M.R.C.V.S.L. 8vo, paper.. ...160 

It is a great advantage to the business man to 

know something of the elements of law, and nobody 
ought either to buy or own a horse who does not know 
something about the animal. That something this book 
gives, and gives in a thoroughly excellent way — 

Our Animal Friends, November, 1898. 



SMITH. **A Manual of Veterinary Physiology." By 

Veterinary Captain F. Smith, M.E.C.V.S. Author of 
" A Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." 

Throughout this manual the object has been to con- 
dense the information as much as possible. The 
broad facts of the sciences are stated so as to render 
them of use to the student and practitioner. In this 
second edition — rewritten — the whole of the Nervous 
System has been revised, a new chapter dealing with 
the Development of the Ovum has been added together 
with many additional facts and illustrations. About 
one hundred additional pages are given. Second 
edition, revised and enlarged, with additional illus- 
trations ' .3 75 

— "Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." 2nd edition, revised. 
Crown, 8vo, cloth 3 25 



{**) STRANGE WAT. "Veterinary Anatomy." Edited by 
I Vaughan, F.L.S., M.E.C.V.S. New edition revised, 
with several hundred illustrations. Svo, cloth. . . .5 0<J 



851-833 Sixth Avenue {cor. iSth St.), New York. 19 



*)SUSSDOBF. " Lar^e Colored Wall Diagrams." By 

Prof. Sussdorf, M.D. (of Gottingen). Text translated 
by Prof. W. Owen Williams, of the New Veterinary 
College, Edinburgh. Size, 44 inches by 30 inches. 

1.— Horse. 4.— Ox. 

2.— Mare. 5.— Boar and Sow. 

3. -Cow. 6.— Dog and Bitch. 

Showing the position of the viscera in the large 
cavities of the body. 

Price, unmounted 1 75 each 

" mounted on linen, with roller 3 50 " 



D VAN MATER. <' A Text Book of Yeterinary Oph- 
thalmology." By George G. Van Mater, M.D., 
D.V.S., Professor of Ophthalmology in the American 
Veterinary College; Oculist and Auristto St. Martha's 
Sanitarium and Dispensary; Consulting Eye and Ear 
Surgeon to the Twenty-sixth Ward Dispensary ; Eye 
and Ear Surgeon, Brooklyn Eastern District Dispen- 
sary, etc. Illustrated by one chromo lithograph plate 
an<l SHventy-one engravings, 
8vo cloth 3 00 



VETERINARY DIAGRAMS in Tabular Form. 
Size, 28^ in. x 22 inches. Price per set of five 4 75 

No. 1. "The External Form and Elementary Ana- 
tomy of the Horse." Eight colored illustrations — 
1. External regions ; 2. Skeleton ; 3. Muscles (Superior 
Layer); 4. Muscles (Deep Layer); 5. Respiratory Ap- 
paratus ; 6. Digestive Apparatus ; 7. Circulatory Ap- 
paratus ; 8. Nerve Apparatus ; with letter-press descrip- 
tion 1 25 



jJO Veterinary Catalogue of William. R. Jenkins 



VETERINARY DIAGRAMS.— CoxAinnQd. 

No. 2. " The Age of Domestic Animals." Forty-two 
figures illustrating the structure of the teeth, indicat- 
ing the Age of the Horse, Ox, Sheep, and Dog, with 
full description , 75 



No. 3. " The Unsoundness and Defects of the Horse." 

Fifty figures illustrating — 1. The Defects of Confor- 
mation; 2. Defects of Position ; 3. Infirmities or Signs 
of Disease ; 4. Unsoundnesses ; 5. Defects of the Foot ; 
with full description 75 



No. 4. "The Shoeing of the Horse, Mule and Ox," 

Fifty figures descriptive t>f the Anatomy and Physio- 
logy of the Foot and of Horse-shoeing 75 



No. 5. "The Elementary Anatomy, Points, and But- 
cher's Joints of the Ox." Ten colored illustrations 
— 1. Skeleton; 2. Nervous System: 3. Digestive 
System (Right Side) ; 4. Respiratory System ; 5. Pointy 
of a Fat Ox ; 6. Muscular System ; 7. Vascular System ; 
8. Digestive System (Left Side) ; 9. Butcher's Sections 
of a Calf ; 10. Butcher's Sections of an Ox ; with full 
description .1 25 



WALLEY, "Four BoTine Scourges." (Plouro-Pneumonia, 
Foot and Mouth Disease, Cattle Plague and 
Tubercle.) With an Appendix on the Inspection 
of Live Animals and Meat. 
Illustrated, 4to, cloth 6 40 



851-853 Sixth Aveniie (cor. iStk St.), J^ew York 21 



WALLET, "A. Practical Guide to Meat Inspection." By 

Thomas Walley, M.R.C.V.S., formerly principal of 
the Edinburgh Royal (Dick) Veterinary College : Pro- 
fessor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, etc. Third 
Edition, thoroughly revised, with forty-five colored 
illustrations, 12mo, cloth 3 OO 

- (4th edition in preparation.) 

An experience of over 30 years in his profession 
and a long official connection (some sixteen years) 
with Edinburgh Abattoirs have enabled the author to 
gather a large store of information on the subject, 
which he has embodied in his book. Dr. Walley's opi- 
nions are regarded as the highest authority on Meat 
Inspection. 



WILLIAMS. "Principles and Practice of Teterinary 
Medicine." New author's edition, entirely revised 
and illustrated with numerous plain and colored 
plates. By W. Williams, M.R.C.V.S. 
Svo., cloth 6 00 



"Principles and Practice of Teterinary Surgery." New 

author's edition, entirely revised and illustrated 
with numerous plain and colored plates. By W. 
Williams, M.R.C.V.S. 
Svo, cloth 6 00 



(•) WILLIAMS - PFMIFFER, " A Course of Surgical 
Operations for Veterinary Students and Practi- 
tioners." By W. Pfeiffer and W. L. Williams, V.S. 
With 42 illustrations, 12mo, cloth 1 25 

See also ^'Pfeiffer-WiUiama" 



^i Veterinary Caialogue of William R. Jenkins 

THE MOST COMPLETE, PROGRESSIVE AND 
SCIENTIFIC BOOK ON THE SUBJECT IN 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

(*) WINSL O W, "Veterinary Materia Medica and Tlierapeu- 
tics." By Kenelm Winslow, B.A.S., M.D.V., M.D., 
(Harv.) ; Assistant Professor of Therapeutics in the 
Veterinary School of Harvard University ; Fellow of 
tiie Massachusetts Medical Society ; Surgeon to the 
Newton Hospital, etc. 

8vo, cloth, 750 pages 6 00 



Your letter received and I am pleased to know that we 
are to have an American Materia Medica. — J. H. Wattles, 
Sr., M.D., D.V.S., The Western Veterinary College, Kansas 
City, Mo. March 19th, 1901. 

. . . Am delighted with it. It is remarkably correct, 
complete and up to date and is bound to supersede any 
other work on the same subject heretofore before the pro- 
fession. 

No practitioner's library is complete without it and it 
will be indispensable for students, as it does away with the 
necessity of their having a number of collateral books on the 
subject. 

It will be adopted as the text book in the Chicago Veter- 
inary College.— Dr. E. L. Quitman, Chicago Veterinary 
College. June 25th, 1901. 

. . . The book is of admirable merit and full of valuable 
information from begfnning to end, very explicit, rich and 
interesting, and should be in the hands of every student as 
well as practitioner of the art of Veterinary Medicine.— 
Tlmrston Miller, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica, Thera- 
peutics and Chemistry, San Francisco Veterinary College. 
July 8th, 1901. 

... I have found tlie book very satisfactory as a 
reference book to be used in connection with lectures. . 
—Dr. W. A. Landacre, College of Pharmacy, Ohio State 
Univei'sity. August 6th, 1901. 



851-853 Sixth Avenue {cor 48th St.), New York 23 



{'")TFYMAN. "The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness 
in the Horse." Hy W. E. A. Wyman, V.S., Prof, of 
Veterinary Science, Clemson A. & M. College, and 
Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment Sta- 
tion. 8vo, cloth, illustrated 2 50 



(*) —"Bovine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin, Instructor 
of Obstetrics at the State Veterinary School in 
Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V., 
V.S., Professor of Veterinary Science, Clemson 
A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South 
Carolina Experiment Station. 

8vo, cloth, 382 pages, 77 illustrations 5 00 

See also '^ De Bruin," 



ZUNDEL. "The Horse's Foot and Its Diseases." By 

A. Zundel, Principal Veterinarian of Alsace Lorraine. 
Translated by Dr. A. Liautard, V.S. 12mo, cloth 
illustrated 2 00 



ZUILL. "Typhoid Fever; or Contagions Influenza 
in tlie Horse." By Prof. W. L. ZuilJ, M.D„D.V.S. 
Pamphlet 26 



Our Books (ire for sale by all booksellers, 
or will be sent prepaid for the prices here quoted. 






WILLIAn R. JENKINS, 

851 and 853 Sixth Avenue, 
NEW YORK, 



UG 1 1904 



